Recommended urban storm water infiltration devices for different types of run-off under varying hydrogeological conditions

Background, aim, and scope  The decentralised near-natural infiltration of storm water in urban areas over a long-term period can cause local pollution of soil, seepage water and groundwater due to heavy metals (e.g. Pb, Zn, Cu), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), petroleum hydrocarbons and readily soluble salts, which compounds are partly classified as hazardous. The aim of this paper is to present a recommendation matrix for suitable storm water infiltration devices. The scope is limited to eight different run-off types and two different infiltration devices (swales and trenches with three different trench-filling materials) under two different hydrogeological conditions (high adsorbing soil with low permeability, low adsorbing soil with high permeability). The examined run-off types are sub-divided as follows: run-off from unpaved areas (gardens, grassed areas, cultivated land); green roofs, aluminium roofs; roofs without zinc gutters and down-pipes; roofs with zinc gutters and down-pipes; copper roofs; zinc roofs and trafficked areas (cycle and pedestrian ways, yards, car parks and residential roads). The recommendation matrix should assist decision-makers such as city planners, architects and private house builders. Materials and methods  The potential for storm water infiltration to pollute soil, seepage water and groundwater is investigated with long-term 3-D numerical water flow and chemical transport modelling in unsaturated and saturated zones over 50 years, which were already presented by Zimmermann et al. (Water Sci Technol 51(2):11–19, 2005). The recommendation is based on a comparison between modelling results and several guideline values prepared by several German authorities. The evaluation process leads to four hazard levels regarding the impact on topsoil (i.e. first 20 cm of the soil), on seepage water (1 m below the infiltration device) and on groundwater (at the unsaturated–saturated boundary). Results  The recommendation matrix consists of 56 individual statements. Relating to dissolved organic substances like phenanthrene and fluoranthene, the infiltration of trafficked areas run-off is critical. The infiltration of metalliferous run-off has a high hazard accumulation potential. Here the storm water infiltration via sub-ground of low permeability and high adsorbing soil material is critical for seepage water in any case; the infiltration of zinc roofs run-off via trench infiltration devices is even critical for groundwater at 4 m depth. Sub-ground of low permeability and high adsorbing soil material has a lower potential hazard in terms of storm water infiltration from roof run-off. The storm water infiltration via swales effects a very large accumulation of heavy metals in the topsoil. The storm water infiltration via trenches leads to the accumulation of hazardous substances in the deeper sub-ground, particularly where the trench-filling material has low adsorbing capacity and high permeability. Discussion  The transferability of the results to other sites depends particularly on the hydrogeological conditions. Before using the recommendation matrix, details of the hydrogeological conditions should be collected. The long-term simulation process is simplified by several impact factors such as non-constant rainfall, soils heterogeneity, macro-porous flow, particle-bounded transport and microbiological decomposition. Conclusions  Based on the scale of risks to soils, seepage water and groundwater, the matrix should be used in the selection of the roof construction materials and appropriate storm water infiltration devices so that the environmental risks can be minimised. If the sub-ground has a high permeability and low adsorption capacities, the infiltration of metalliferous roof run-off water is, in general, not advisable without putting treatment facilities in place upstream. Thus, architects need to realise that the choice of a suitable infiltration device depends, on the one hand, on the type of run-off and, on the other hand, on the hydrogeological condition and the building materials. Recommendations and perspectives  Replacement of the topsoil in swale infiltration devices is recommended because, in particular, heavy metal (zinc) in run-off from roofs with zinc gutters and down-pipes accumulates in the soil matrix. The replacement interval depends on the hydrogeological conditions and, for this run-off example, lies between 10 and 20 years. If infiltration is essential, constructing special treatment facilities upstream can be an alternative. The existing numerical model could be adapted to suit other site-specific materials and be enhanced regarding several complex impact factors.     

Surface transport of 2,4-D from small turf plots: observations compared with GLEAMS and PRZM-2 model simulations

A three-year field study was conducted using twelve 7.4×3.7 m plots and simulated rainfall to investigate pesticide run-off following application to a golf course fairway. The plots were sprigged with ‘Tifway 419’ bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon×C transvaalensis). The dimethylamine salt of 2,4-D [(2,4-dichlorophenoxy)acetic acid] was applied as foliar sprays at a rate of 2.24 kg AI ha⁻¹. Simulated rainfall was applied at an intensity of 29 mm h⁻¹ one day before and 1, 2, 4, and 8 days after the pesticide applications for 0.92, 1.75. 1.75, 0.92, and 0.92 h, respectively. Water run-off was measured using a tipping-bucket apparatus and sub-samples were analyzed for pesticide residues. Data collected from the study were also compared with the GLEAMS and PRZM-2 model simulations for surface water and 2,4-D run-off. Mass and concentration of 2,4-D in run-off decreased rapidly, with 74.5% of the total run-off of 2,4-D occurring in the first run-off event after treatment. When calibrated to the site-specific characteristics, the GLEAMS and the PRZM-2 models adequately simulated the average of surface water run-off over all plots, with normalized root mean square error (NRMSE) and coefficient of determination for linear regression (R²) being 22.8% and 0.917 for GLEAMS, and 23.7% and 0.879 for PRZM-2, respectively. However, both GLEAMS (NRMSE=82.1%, R²=0.776) and PRZM-2 (NRMSE=125.8%, R²=0.513) less accurately simulated 2,4-D concentrations in run-off. © 1999 Society of Chemical Industry     

固原试验区径流观测及综合治理减沙效益的研究

固原试区于“六五”期间建立一批径流小区,“七五”期间又建立一处综合治理与不治理的对比观测区。现获得起流降雨记录34次,径流泥沙数据3120个,对比观测区记录8次。本文发表的这批实测数据为黄土高原宁南丘陵区填补了空白;初步对数据的整理,得出坡度、坡长、不同植被、不同雨强与水土流失量的关系;又作了统计分析,得出土壤流失量与起流雨量及30min内最大雨强的两个单因子幂函数式,及分别适用于高强型起流雨和低强型起流雨的两个多元幂函数型多项式逐步回归式,经实测检验,精度在±10%左右;据此估算目前全试区15km²的综合治理减沙效益达60.0%以上。     

Nutrient losses by surface run-off from soils with winter cover crops and spring-ploughed soils in the south of Sweden

Winter cover crops are used as a method of reducing nitrogen (N) losses from arable land in several countries, but their effect on phosphorus (P) losses is poorly documented. Run-off and losses of nutrients and soil were measured from a clay loam with autumn-ploughed and spring-ploughed plots and from plots with winter wheat during three winter seasons (1993–1996) in Holland County in south western Sweden. The run-off water was collected in troughs dug into the soil at the end of collecting slopes placed in the experimental plots. As a result of the weather, there was only one winter in which surface run-off occurred to any great extent. On average, 75% of P was in particulate form (P_part). Neither winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) nor catch crops of English ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) reduced losses of P_part when compared with losses from autumn-ploughed soil; and losses from spring-ploughed soil containing stubble and weeds were no lower than those from autumn-ploughed soil. Losses of P_part from all treatments were moderate considering its low bio-availability. Concentrations of phosphate phosphorus (PO₄-P) were low, with a mean 0.04 mg 1⁻¹. Despite a significant increase in losses of PO₄-P from spring-ploughed soil covered with stubble and catch crops or weeds compared with that in autumn-ploughed soil, the extra input from this P source was at most 2 g ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹. This mass loss was equal to 0.5 g kg⁻¹ of the total mass of P in the vegetation. Thus, only very small extra P surface losses were found with winter cover crops compared with those with bare soils. N losses in run-off were low in all treatments.     

Relationships between rock fragment cover and soil hydrological response in a Mediterranean environment

Rock fragments are a key factor for determining erosion rates, particularly in arid and semiarid environments where vegetation cover is very low. However, the effect of rock fragments in non-cultivated bare soils is still not well understood. Currently, there is a need for quantitative information on the effects of rock fragments on hydrological soil processes, in order to improve soil erosion models. The main objective of the present research was to study the influence of rock fragment cover on run-off and interrill soil erosion under simulated rainfall in Mediterranean bare soils in south-western Spain. Thirty-six rainfall simulation experiments were carried out at an intensity of 26.8 mm h⁻¹ over 60 min under three different classes of rock fragment cover (<50%, 50–60% and >60%). Ponding and run-off flow were delayed in soils with high rock fragment cover. In addition, sediment yield and soil erosion rates were higher in soils with a low rock fragment cover. The relationship between soil loss rate and rock fragment cover was described by an exponential function. After this first set of experiments, rock fragments were removed from sites with the highest cover (>60%) and the rainfall simulation experiments were repeated. The steady-state run-off rate and soil loss increased significantly, showing that run-off and soil erosion were partly conditioned by rock fragment cover. These results have significant implications for erosion modelling and soil conservation practices in areas with the same climate and soil characteristics.     

森林对河川径流影响关系的研究进展

国外森林和水分的关系的科学研究始于20世纪初,森林与径流关系的研究方法大致有大范围的计量分析研究、一个林区或林场的计量调查、小范围的定位观测试验3大类。森林对径流影响的研究主要有森林对年径流的影响、森林对洪水径流的影响、森林对枯水径流影响等几个方面。今后应加强合作研究,特别是利用网络研究对比不同集水区之间的结果来探讨森林对径流的影响,同时重视新技术和新方法的应用。     

基于遗传程序设计的产流预报模型

产流预报模型是洪水预报的基础,为了提高产流预报精度,将遗传程序引入降水、径流关系回归模型中。遗传程序能够通过自身演化寻找因果变量之间的回归关系,自动形成函数表达式,比传统方法有很大的灵活性,不必事先选定具体的数学表达式。将该预报模型应用于陡河水库的径流预报,并同传统线性回归方法进行比较,结果表明:基于遗传程序设计的产流预报模型适应性强,拟合精度高,适合解决非线性问题,为径流预报提供了新方法。     

4种草皮缓冲带对径流污染物去除效果研究

通过试验研究冰草、炸酱草、披碱草、白花三叶草4种草皮缓冲带对径流水中总氮、悬浮固体颗粒物的净化效果。结果表明,4种缓冲带对径流中总氮的平均去除率在30%以上,披碱草缓冲带的全程TN削减量最高,冰草缓冲带的全程TN削减量最低,差值达6.69个百分点。4种缓冲带对悬浮固体颗粒物的平均去除率达73.64%,全程炸酱草缓冲带对SS的削减率最高,白花三叶草最低,差值为12.8个百分点。通过数据拟合的方法计算当悬浮固体颗粒物去除率达60%时4种草皮缓冲带所需的最佳宽度分别为冰草缓冲带9.77m,炸酱草缓冲带10.69m,披碱草缓冲带12.25m,白花三叶草缓冲带15.01m。     

Run-off transport of herbicides during natural and simulated rainfall and its reduction by vegetated filter strips

The efficiency of filter strips in protecting watercourses against herbicides in run‐off was evaluated in field experiments in western Germany. Surface run‐off caused by natural rainfall and related transport of metolachlor, terbuthylazine and pendimethalin were measured on plots of 40 m length without filter strips (F0), and after passing over three types of herbicide‐untreated field margin: 12 m conservation headland (CH12), 6 m (GF6) and 12 m grass strips (GF12). Run‐off was also measured after simulated rainfall on 7 m long plots without (F0) and with 3 m grass strips (GF3). All three herbicides were transported both in dissolved and in adsorbed forms; the partitioning depended on their water solubility with metolachlor and terbuthylazine mainly translocated in dissolved form (F0: highest mean concentrations for a natural run‐off event 721 and 220 μg L^?1, respectively). Pendimethalin was predominantly transported in adsorbed form (maximum mean concentration 11.2 μg L^?1). In the sediment, the highest mean herbicide contents in a single natural event (F0) accounted for 2294 μg kg^?1 (metolachlor), 1317 μg kg^?1 (terbuthylazine) and 5648 μg kg^?1 (pendimethalin). The proportions of applied herbicide translocated were 0.3% (metolachlor), 0.2% (terbuthylazine) and 0.06% (pendimethalin; F0, natural rainfall). The extent of herbicide transport decreased with time but within this trend soil sealing, soil moisture and amount and intensity of rainfall increased losses. Compared with the F0 plots, the reduction of herbicide translocation after natural rainfall reached 80–83% (CH12), 80–88% (GF6) and >99% (GF12) over the 3‐year period. The 12 m grass strips allowed only one extreme run‐off event to pass through, thus providing a highly effective watercourse protection against herbicide pollution.