Drought and fire suppression lead to rapid forest composition change in a forest-prairie ecotone

Altered fire regimes and increased drought can lead to major vegetation changes, especially in ecotones. A decrease in fire can lead to woody species encroachment in prairies and increasing forest stand density. The threat of global climate change raises questions about potential increases in the length, severity, and incidence of droughts substantially altering species composition. Re-measured upland forests in south-central North America's midcontinent forest-prairie ecotone exhibited major changes in woody species composition and structure over fifty years and successional trajectories appeared to favor invasive Juniperus virginiana L. over the previous dominant Quercus species. The objective of this study was to determine whether climate and fire exclusion affected the recruitment history of dominant woody species in these upland forests located near the xeric western edge of the eastern deciduous forest biome of North America. We removed cores and cross-sections from 992 J. virginiana, Quercus marilandica Münchh. and Q. stellata Wangenh. trees from eleven forest stands located across central and northwest Oklahoma, and determined their ages using standard dendrochronological methods. Recruitment of all species increased following a severe mid-20th century drought, but a rapid increase in J. virginiana recruitment and decrease in Quercus recruitment appeared to be linked to a decrease in fire. Future fire regime changes and increased drought due to global climate change could lead to widespread shifts from Quercus- to Juniperus- dominated forests and cause substantial changes to ecosystem services.     

Long term effects of fire on ectomycorrhizas and soil properties in Nothofagus pumilio forests in Argentina

The forests of Nothofagus pumilio have historically been affected by forest fires. The effects of fire on certain above and belowground, biotic and abiotic components of these ecosystems have been previously documented, albeit belowground components have received much less attention. It has been suggested that the effects observed in the short-term after a fire usually differ from the longer-term effects. The long-term effects of fire (i.e. >5 years after burning) on belowground components in Nothofagus forests are currently unknown. In the present study we evaluated the long-term effect of fire on ectomycorrhiza (ECM) colonization and morphotype composition in N. pumilio roots, as well as soil chemical properties in temperate forests in Patagonia. Sampling was conducted in three mature monospecific forests. In each, nearby burned and unburned sites were selected. The time since the occurrence of fires differed between areas (i.e. 6-10 years). Within each site, 3 transects of 40 m were established randomly along which 5 samples of roots and soil were collected in spring and autumn. The main results were: (1) in comparison with the unburned site, ECM colonization was lower in the burned site in the area with the shorter time length since fire occurrence and no effects in the other two areas were observed; (2) richness and diversity were not significantly affected by fire but there was a significant effect of season for both parameters, being higher in spring; (3) ECM dominance was significantly higher in the unburned than in the burned site in Tronador, while in Challhuaco the opposite was observed, mainly in autumn; (4) in general carbon, nitrogen and phosphorous decreased while pH increased in the burned sites; (5) ECM colonization positively correlated with NH⁴⁺ and phosphorus and negatively with pH but was not significantly correlated with organic matter or any other soil variable. Altogether the results suggest that effects of fire on ectomycorrhiza and soil properties in N. pumilio forests are probably related to the time elapsed since fire occurrence combined with site characteristics. In addition, the direct and indirect effects of fire in these forest systems may persist for more than 10 years.     

Stand structure, fuel loads, and fire behavior in riparian and upland forests, Sierra Nevada Mountains, USA; a comparison of current and reconstructed conditions

Fire plays an important role in shaping many Sierran coniferous forests, but longer fire return intervals and reductions in area burned have altered forest conditions. Productive, mesic riparian forests can accumulate high stem densities and fuel loads, making them susceptible to high-severity fire. Fuels treatments applied to upland forests, however, are often excluded from riparian areas due to concerns about degrading streamside and aquatic habitat and water quality. Objectives of this study were to compare stand structure, fuel loads, and potential fire behavior between adjacent riparian and upland forests under current and reconstructed active-fire regime conditions. Current fuel loads, tree diameters, heights, and height to live crown were measured in 36 paired riparian and upland plots. Historic estimates of these metrics were reconstructed using equations derived from fuel accumulation rates, current tree data, and increment cores. Fire behavior variables were modeled using Forest Vegetation Simulator Fire/Fuels Extension.Riparian forests were significantly more fire prone under current than reconstructed conditions, with greater basal area (BA) (means are 87 vs. 29 m²/ha), stand density (635 vs. 208 stems/ha), snag volume (37 vs. 2 m³/ha), duff loads (69 vs. 3 Mg/ha), total fuel loads (93 vs. 28 Mg/ha), canopy bulk density (CBD) (0.12 vs. 0.04 kg/m³), surface flame length (0.6 vs. 0.4 m), crown flame length (0.9 vs. 0.4 m), probability of torching (0.45 vs. 0.03), predicted mortality (31% vs. 17% BA), and lower torching (20 vs. 176 km/h) and crowning indices (28 vs. 62 km/h). Upland forests were also significantly more fire prone under current than reconstructed conditions, yet changes in fuels and potential fire behavior were not as large. Under current conditions, riparian forests were significantly more fire prone than upland forests, with greater stand density (635 vs. 401 stems/ha), probability of torching (0.45 vs. 0.22), predicted mortality (31% vs. 16% BA), and lower quadratic mean diameter (46 vs. 55 cm), canopy base height (6.7 vs. 9.4 m), and frequency of fire tolerant species (13% vs. 36% BA). Reconstructed riparian and upland forests were not significantly different. Our reconstruction results suggest that historic fuels and forest structure may not have differed significantly between many riparian and upland forests, consistent with earlier research suggesting similar historic fire return intervals. Under current conditions, however, modeled severity is much greater in riparian forests, suggesting forest habitat and ecosystem function may be more severely impacted by wildfire than in upland forests.     

Weather and human impacts on forest fires: 100 years of fire history in two climatic regions of Switzerland

Understanding the factors driving past fire regimes is crucial in the context of global change as a basis for predicting future changes. In this study, we aimed to identify the impact of climate and human activities on fire occurrence in the most fire-prone regions of Switzerland. We considered forest fires, land use and meteorological data over the period 1904-2008 in the neighboring mountain cantons (states) of Valais and Ticino, which are characterized by distinct climatic regimes.The presence/absence of fire ignitions was analyzed using the Nesterov ignition index (as a proxy for fire weather), road density (for ignition sources), livestock density (for biomass removal), and change in forest area (for fire-prone abandoned agricultural areas).We found that fire weather played a key role in fire occurrence in both regions. Road and livestock densities had similar influences in the two cantons. However, while the increase in forest area was well correlated with fire occurrence in Ticino, no such correlation was evident in Valais, probably because land abandonment and forest cover change have been less extensive there. Our findings emphasize the non-linear nature of the relationships between fire occurrence and anthropogenic drivers, as we found thresholds above which road density was no longer correlated with fire occurrence. This implies that the projected future increase and spatial concentration of the human population may not result in a further increase in fire risk in intermediately to densely populated areas in both cantons.The driving factors behind fire activity differ slightly in the two cantons, in particular with increasing forest area enhancing fire occurrence in Ticino but not in Valais. These differences should be taken into account when assessing future fire risk, especially in Valais where the potential for an increase in the fire-prone area is still high. Fires are likely to become more frequent in a warmer climate, but future fire activity may develop differently in the two cantons. This should be taken into account when planning optimized fire prevention measures. This case study should help to better understand fire activity in highly populated regions where fire activity is still moderate but might markedly increase under a projected more fire-prone climate.     

火干扰对天然红松林结构和演替过程的影响

1990—1992年期间对小兴安岭凉水林场天然红松林土壤中木炭、火烧木疤痕和林分组成进行了调查。探讨火干扰对森林形成和演替的生态作用。在不同火干扰年代的林分中,抽样挖掘木炭,测量木炭块的大小和分布深度,记录各林分结构特征和红松更新状况,并根据树木火疤园盘确定火干扰年代。选择了50 hm~2火干扰林分,对火烧疤痕木进行详细调查,并在其中设置样地,调查各样地林分组成和红松径阶结构。结果表明:Ⅰ.不同火干扰年代的林分。土壤中的木炭平均深度与火干扰发生的时间关系密切。Ⅱ.根据50 hm~2火干扰林分中火烧木疤痕的调查,绘制了火行为动态图。火烧方向和火干扰程度与立地条件关系密切。Ⅲ.火干扰并未完全破坏森林,导致林分中不同地点上林分组成和红松径阶结构的差异明显。在火干扰后,整个林分的水平结构是一个由不同树种组成和不同红松径阶结构的树木群团构成的镶嵌体,各树木群团的演替趋势不同。在火干扰较重的地点,阳性阔叶林占优势,在阔叶树下更新着大量的红松小树。在火干扰较轻的地点,耐阴性阔叶树种占优势,并有少量大径阶红松。火干扰轻微的地点,大径阶的红松占优势。     

火烧迹地土壤磷含量变化的研究

磷是酸性土壤中限制林木生长的重要因素，火烧迹地中磷素营养的变化，对苗木的生长发育和林木更新有着重要的作用，对火烧后的森林土壤营养含量变化的研究表明，火烧后磷的含量迅速增加，特别是火烧强度较大的火烧迹地（Ｓ）的有效磷含量与对照（Ｃ）相比比较，Ｓ迹地０￣５ｃｍ深度增加３３倍，５￣１０ｃｍ增加６４．５倍，１０￣１５ｃｍ增加１２．５倍，且磷含量的增加与火烧强度有关。幼苗对磷的吸收及礤生长也与火烧强度有关，     

梨火疫病菌在中国的潜在分布及入侵风险分析

 【目的】细菌性梨火疫病最早发生在北美洲，随着水果贸易等人为因素向世界其它地区传播。对当地的生物多样性和经济带来了极其严重的威胁，亟需对其在中国的适生区进行预测。【方法】苹果开花期的温度和降水量是影响梨火疫病菌适生分布的关键气候因子，本研究根据这一生物学特性及生态环境因子，应用地理信息系统分析得出了梨火疫病在中国两个苹果优势产区的潜在定殖区域。【结果】用该方法对梨火疫病在欧洲的发生情况的预测结果与其历史分布记录相符，使用相同的空间建模方法对梨火疫病在渤海湾和黄土高原两个苹果优势栽培产区的潜在定殖区域进行风险评估，结果表明这两大苹果产区中优先扶持的县大多处于梨火疫病发生的高风险范围。【结论】梨火疫病在中国的大部分地区适生，在有适宜寄主分布的地区，就可能严重发生。     

Applying evidence-based practice in conservation management: Lessons from the first systematic review and dissemination projects

Lack of systematic evaluation of the effectiveness of conservation practices has hindered advances in scientific management of biodiversity. Development of an evidence-based framework of the kind used in the health services has been advocated as an approach to address this problem. Here we report on and evaluate the first two ecological systematic reviews undertaken using this framework. The subjects were the effectiveness of burning as a conservation intervention for UK sub-montane, dry dwarf shrub heaths (heath review) and blanket bog (bog review). Systematic search yielded 13 data sets from seven ‘heath’ articles and 11 data sets from eight ‘bog’ articles. Data from the heath review were of sufficient quality to enable meta-analysis whereas data from the bog review was synthesised by “vote counting”. Meta-analysis of the heath data indicates that floristic diversity is variable, particularly in early post-fire successional sequences, but older stands experienced significantly greater loss of diversity than younger stands. The bog review indicates that there are no consistent changes in floristic composition in response to burning. The evidence-base for upland management by burning is insufficient to generate robust management recommendations highlighting the necessity for further work. Feedback from the dissemination of the reviews provided valuable lessons for future reviews in terms of stakeholder involvement in question formulation and the balance between a reductionist and holistic approach. Systematic reviews are appropriate tools for conservation management and formalise the information available based on the weight of evidence. Evidence will commonly be lacking in many areas of conservation biology and the evidence-based framework effectively exposes this situation in a way that can determine requirements for needs-led research.     

Silvicultural and reserve impacts on potential fire behavior and forest conservation: Twenty-five years of experience from Sierra Nevada mixed conifer forests

Most administrators and ecologists agree that reducing the levels of hazardous fuels on forests is essential to restore healthy watersheds and protect adjacent human communities. The current debate over the appropriateness, technique, and timing of treatments utilized to restore vegetation structure and composition is currently on-going at local, state, and national levels. To provide information for these forums, the efficacy of seven traditional silvicultural systems and two types of reserves used in the Sierra Nevada mixed conifer forests is evaluated in terms of vegetation structure, fuel bed characteristics, modeled fire behavior, and potential wildfire related mortality. The systems include old-growth reserve, young-growth reserve, thinning from below, individual tree selection, overstory removal, and four types of plantations. These are the most commonly used silvicultural systems and reserves on federal, state, and private lands in the western United States. Each silvicultural system or reserve had three replicates and varied in size from 15 to 25 ha; a systematic design of plots was used to collect tree and fuel information. The majority of the traditional silvicultural systems examined in this work (all plantation treatments, overstory removal, individual tree selection) did not effectively reduce potential fire behavior and effects, especially wildfire induced tree mortality at high and extreme fire weather conditions. Overall, thinning from below, and old-growth and young-growth reserves were more effective at reducing predicted tree mortality.     

Release, movement and recovery of 3,4-dimethylpyrazole phosphate (DMPP), ammonium, and nitrate from stabilized nitrogen fertilizer granules in a silty clay soil under laboratory conditions

 The composition of soil microbiota in four heated (350  °C, 1 h) soils (one Ortic Podsol over sandstone and three Humic Cambisol over granite, schist or limestone) inoculated (1.5 μg chlorophyll a g^–1 soil or 3.0 μg chlorophyll a g^–1 soil) with cyanobacteria (Oscillatoria PCC9014, Nostoc PCC9025, Nostoc PCC9104, Scytonema CCC9801, and a mixture of the four) was studied by cultural methods. The aims of the work were to investigate the potential value of cyanobacteria as biofertilizers for accelerating soil recolonization after fire as well as promoting microbiotic crust formation and to determine the microbial composition of such a crust. The inoculated cyanobacteria proliferated by 5 logarithmic units in the heated soils which were colonized very quickly and, after 2 months of incubation, the cyanobacterial filaments and associated fungal hyphae made up a matrix in which surface soil particles were gathered into crusts of up to 1.0 cm in thickness. These crusts were composed, on average, of 2.5×10¹⁰ cyanobacteria, 2.8×10⁶ algae, 6.1×10¹⁰ heterotrophic bacteria (of which 1.2×10⁸ were acidophilic, 1.3×10⁶ were Bacillus spp. and 1.5×10⁸ were actinomycetes) and 77.8 m fungal mycelium (1.4×10⁶ were fungal propagules) g^–1 crust. Counts of most microbial groups were positively correlated to cyanobacterial numbers. The efficacy of treatment depended on both the class of inoculum and the type of soil. The best inoculum was the mixture of the four strains and, whatever the inoculum used, the soil over lime showed the most developed crust followed by the soils over schist, granite and sandstone; however, the latter was comparatively the most favoured by the amendment. In the medium term there were no significant differences between the two inocula rates used. Biofertilization increased counts of cyanobacteria by 8 logarithmic units while heterotrophic bacteria, actinomycetes, algae and fungal propagules rose by >4 logarithmic units, acidophilic bacteria and Bacillus spp. by around 3 logarithmic units and fungal mycelia showed an 80-fold increase. The results showed that inoculation of burned soils with particle-binding diazotrophic cyanobacteria may be a means of both improving crust formation and restoring microbial populations. Received: 8 March 2000