Tillage effects and energy efficiencies of subsoiling and direct seeding in light soil on yield of second crop corn for silage in Western Turkey

The objective of this study was to examine tillage effects and energy efficiencies of subsoiling and direct seeding on yield of second crop corn (Zea mays L.) for silage in light soil of Odemis located in the western part of Turkey. In this research, tillage and direct seeding were applied in dry and wet soil conditions after winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) harvesting in the years 2002 and 2003. The effects of conventional tillage method, reduced tillage methods that include one and cross pass subsoiling, and direct seeding applications on corn yield were examined. In the experiment, a regular four-row corn planter was used. Tillage speed, slip, fuel consumptions, seedling emergence, plant height, and yield were measured. From the data, total energy requirement and effectiveness of each method were calculated.

The highest fuel consumption was measured in conventional method (PLG) whereas the lowest value was found in direct seeding method (DIR) as 60.5 l ha⁻¹ and 7.5 l ha⁻¹ in 2002, respectively. The conventional method required seven times more fuel than the direct seeding method. For field efficiencies, as parallel to the finding in fuel consumption, the highest value was 1.34 ha h⁻¹ in DIR and 0.40 ha h⁻¹ in one pass subsoiling method (SUB I). DIR method had nine times more field efficiencies as compared to the conventional method. The highest yield was found in cross pass subsoiling method (SUB II) as 72.6 Mg ha⁻¹ and 61.6 Mg ha⁻¹ in the first and second year, respectively. Although DIR has minimum fuel consumption and maximum field efficiency, this method gave the lowest yield as 64.7 Mg ha⁻¹ in the first year and 37.2 Mg ha⁻¹ in the second year.     

Irrigation response of Pistachio (Pistacia vera L.)

Pistachio yields normally alternate between high and low values for consecutive years due to management and genetic effects. In this study, irrigated and non-irrigated treatments of old pistachio trees (Pistacia vera L.) were compared for 5 years from 1979 to 1983. Two irrigation treatments consisting of irrigation scheduling at 20- and 30-day interval were compared with the control treatment of no irrigation. Results showed that irrigation practice in pistachio orchards not only increased fruit yield, but also suppressed periodicity, the low fruit yield in alternating years. The frequent irrigation of 20-day interval nearly doubled the dry fruit yield irrespective of whether it was the off-yielding year, compared to non-irrigated control treatment. Three-years average for the irrigation at 20 days interval was 5710 kg per ha during the on-yielding years (1979,1981 and 1983); whereas, the control treatment of no irrigation yielded only 3450 kg per ha during the same period. Two-year average of the non-irrigated treatment, during the off-yielding years (1980 and 1982) was 1730 kg per ha; whereas, the irrigated treatment of 20-day interval, for the same period, showed significantly (P 0.05) higher fruit yield (4030 kg per ha). Irrigation treatments, during both on and off-yielding years, had no effect on fruit quality characteristics such as nut weight, blank and split shell percent, etc. The root activity under frequent irrigation treatment was confined to shallower soil depth than the longer interval irrigation treatment.     

Growth performance of bath sponge (Spongia officinalis Linnaeus, 1759) farmed on suspended ropes in the Dardanelles (Turkey)

Commercial bath sponge population in the Mediterranean has been recently reduced due to diseases and the depletion of natural banks. The commercial supply is far below the demand on the last 10–15 years. In this study, we aimed to investigate the farming performance of Spongia officinalis in the Dardanelles. Sponges collected from the Dardanelles cut into pieces of different weight. They were divided into two groups depending on the wet weight ranging from 50 to 150 g (mean weight 102.6 ± 4.81 g) and from 160 to 360 g (mean weight 235.8 ± 8.56 g). Three rope systems located parallel to each other with 6–7 m inter‐distance were constructed for the cultivation of sponges. At the end of the study, while small‐sized sponges could reach mean wet weight of 120.7 ± 14.8 g, large‐sized sponges reached mean wet weight of 247.6 ± 22.4 g. Growth rates were estimated 5–17% at 21st month. The survival rates were found 82% and 88%.     

Food restriction and development of thermoregulation in Muscovy ducklings (Cairina moschata)

1. The interaction between the effects of food restriction and cold stress on the development of body temperature, homeothermy index, metabolic rate and body weight were studied in Muscovy ducklings from hatching to 21 d of age.

2. The control group (ad libitum fed) and the food restricted group (fed to zero growth rate for 9 d) both became homeothermic when they were 2 d old with moderate (10°C) cold stress. At severe cold stress (0°C) the control group was homeothermic 5 days after hatching. However the food restricted group did not reach homeothermy at 0°C and showed a large decrease (to hatching level) in homeothermy index at 10°C and 0°C after 9 d of food restriction.

3. Body temperature was lower in the food‐restricted group during restriction and increased by 1°C after 24 h of ad libitum feeding. During food restriction, resting metabolic rate did not increase with age and was lower than the basal and existence metabolic rate predicted by Aschoff and Pohl (1970) and Kendeigh (1970) respectively.

4. The ratio of metabolisable energy (ME) intake to resting metabolic rate was 3 times lower in the food‐restricted group than in the control group (0.09 and 0.27 respectively) on day 9. The availability of ME was more important than age for the development of thermoregulation in Muscovy ducklings. It is concluded that small improvements in the feeding regimen of young ducklings enhance the endurance and consequently reduce mortality from to environmental cold stress in a scavenger poultry system.     

Soybean production in eastern and southern Africa and threat of yield loss due to soybean rust caused by Phakopsora pachyrhizi

Soybean is a major source of oil and proteins worldwide. The demand for soybean has increased in Africa, driven by the growing feed industry for poultry, aquaculture and home consumption in the form of processed milk, baked beans and for blending with maize and wheat flour. Soybean, in addition to being a major source of cooking oil, is also used in other industrial processes such as in the production of paints and candle wax. The demand for soybean in Africa so far outweighs the supply, hence the deficit is mainly covered through imports of soybean products such as soybean meal. The area under soybean production has increased in response to the growing demand, a trend that is expected to continue in the coming years. As the production area increases, diseases and insect pests, declining soil fertility and other abiotic factors pose a major challenge. Soybean rust disease, caused by the fungus Phakopsora pachyrhizi, presents one of the major threats to soybean production in Africa due to its rapid spread as a result of the ease by which its spores are dispersed by the wind. Disease control by introducing resistant soybean varieties has been difficult due to the presence of different populations of the fungus that vary in pathogenicity, virulence and genetic composition. Improved understanding of the dynamics of rust ecology, epidemiology and population genetics will enhance the effectiveness of targeted interventions that, in turn, will safeguard soybean productivity.     

Biosorption of Methylene Blue from Aqueous Solutions by Hazelnut Shells: Equilibrium, Parameters and Isotherms

This paper presents a study on the batch adsorption of a basic dye, methylene blue (MB), from aqueous solution onto ground hazelnut shell in order to explore its potential use as a low-cost adsorbent for wastewater dye removal. A contact time of 24 h was required to reach equilibrium. Batch adsorption studies were carried out by varying initial dye concentration, initial pH value (3–9), ionic strength (0.0–0.1 mol L^?1), particle size (0–200 μm) and temperature (25–55°C). The extent of the MB removal increased with increasing in the solution pH, ionic strength and temperature but decreased with increase in the particle size. The equilibrium data were analysed using the Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms. The characteristic parameters for each isotherm were determined. By considering the experimental results and adsorption models applied in this study, it can be concluded that equilibrium data were represented well by Langmuir isotherm equation. The maximum adsorption capacities for MB were 2.14?×?10^?4, 2.17?×?10^?4, 2.20?×?10^?4 and 2.31?×?10^?4 mol g^?1 at temperature of 25, 35, 45 and 55°C, respectively. Adsorption heat revealed that the adsorption of MB is endothermic in nature. The results indicated that the MB strongly interacts with the hazelnut shell powder.     

An antigenic investigation of Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV) in hard ticks from provinces in northern Turkey

Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus threatens human health. Exposure of the infected tick is a strong risk factor for human disease. In this study, the hard ticks collected from a variety of mammalian species (cattle, sheep, goat, and buffalo) and a turtle in either coastal or inland Black Sea region of Turkey were surveyed for the presence of antigen from Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV). CCHFV antigen was found in 46 of 421 tick pools (10.92%). Positivity rates for the provinces varied and were as follows: Samsun 33.87%, Ordu 4.34%, Giresun 8.86%, Sinop 6.09%, Amasya 7.40%, Tokat 5.08%, and Sivas 8.06%. CCHFV antigen was detected in seven of 11 tick species tested. These results suggest that these hard ticks may act as a reservoir for CCHFV in northern Turkey.     

Human impacts on the endangered fan mussel,Pinna nobilis

1. Pinna nobilis is a sensitive and vulnerable species and is hence considered a good indicator of anthropogenic pressures on marine ecosystems.
2. This study provides novel data on the density and distribution of endangered P. nobilis on the Turkish coasts. Threats to the status of P. nobilis, including by‐catch and illegal collection, were assessed, as was the general awareness of people about the endangered status of fan mussels.
3. The data sources consisted of direct observations from diving surveys and the local ecological knowledge (LEK) of fishers and scuba‐divers.
4. Results demonstrated that the density of P. nobilis significantly changed with environmental parameters, such as depth, and among different sampling areas. The number of damaged individuals was lowest in the areas that were distant from human influences such as ports and tourist beaches. The density estimations of P. nobilis across a wide geographic area around the Turkish coasts revealed that the density of fan mussels was highest around western coasts in comparison with southern coasts.
5. Fishers and divers indicated that the population of this species has decreased during the last decade. The main causes of this decline were suggested to be the impacts of fishing gear, poaching, pollution, and boat anchoring. The highest volume of by‐catch was estimated to be taken by trawls. In general, the knowledge and local awareness of the conservation importance and status of fan mussels was poor.
6. The study has identified those areas where fan mussels occur at a high density, and hence may indicate areas for possible conservation protection status. Second, areas exposed to the illegal harvesting of fan mussels were highlighted. Societal concern would benefit from educational activities to raise awareness of the ecological importance and conservation needs for fan mussels in Turkey.

     

Growth and mortality of Mediterranean mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis Lam., 1819, in relation to size on longline in Mersin Bay, Izmir (Turkey – Aegean Sea)

The growth and mortality rate of different size of mussels, Mytilus galloprovincialis, were compared in Mersin bay, Izmir. Mussel sampling was performed on a monthly basis over 1 year, together with hyrobiological parameters. Water temperature, salinity, chlorophyll a, total particulate matter (TPM) and particulate organic carbon (POC) were determined. Average chlorophyll a, TPM and POC values were 3.88±1.62 μg L⁻¹, 13.12±3.68 mg L⁻¹ and 252±121.89 μg L⁻¹ respectively. Initial mean lengths of mussels for each size group were 10 mm (9.91±0.25 mm), 20 mm (20.14±0.29 mm), 30 mm (30.66±0.21 mm), 40 mm (40.14±0.21 mm), 50 mm (50.62±0.21 mm), 60 mm (59.77±0.21 mm) and 70 mm (69.47±0.62 mm). Maximum growth in length occurred during the spring–summer months. The annual length increments of mussel size groups were 46.22, 41.42, 30.3, 28.03, 20.63, 16.34 and 12.03 mm from small to large size groups respectively. Small mussels grew faster than large mussels and reached commercial size at the same time. Mortality was <5% for all groups at the end of the experiment.