Ecoviability for ecosystem‐based fisheries management

Reconciling food security, economic development and biodiversity conservation is a key challenge, especially in the face of the demographic transition characterizing many countries in the world. Fisheries and marine ecosystems constitute a difficult application of this bio‐economic challenge. Many experts and scientists advocate an ecosystem approach to manage marine socio‐ecosystems for their sustainability and resilience. However, the ways by which to operationalize ecosystem‐based fisheries management (EBFM) remain poorly specified. We propose a specific methodological framework—viability modelling—to do so. We show how viability modelling can be applied using four contrasted case‐studies: two small‐scale fisheries in South America and Pacific and two larger‐scale fisheries in Europe and Australia. The four fisheries are analysed using the same modelling framework, structured around a set of common methods, indicators and scenarios. The calibrated models are dynamic, multispecies and multifleet and account for various sources of uncertainty. A multicriteria evaluation is used to assess the scenarios’ outcomes over a long time horizon with different constraints based on ecological, social and economic reference points. Results show to what extent the bio‐economic and ecosystem risks associated with the adoption of status quo strategies are relatively high and challenge the implementation of EBFM. In contrast, strategies called ecoviability or co‐viability strategies, that aim at satisfying the viability constraints, reduce significantly these ecological and economic risks and promote EBFM. The gains associated with those ecoviability strategies, however, decrease with the intensity of regulations imposed on these fisheries.     

Fishmeal alternative from renewable CO2 for rainbow trout feed

The rapid global growth in fish farming and limited supply of fish meal (FM) has consequently reduced FM inclusion levels in compound feeds leading to a higher reliance on alternative protein sources. Sasya is a single cell protein (SCP) product that has a similar amino acid profile as FM. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of replacing FM with SCP on in vivo digestibility, growth, feed efficiency, whole‐body proximate/amino acid composition and gene expression levels of various hepatic enzymes in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Three isonitrogenous (470 g/kg crude protein) and isolipidic (18 g/kg crude lipid) diets were formulated as follows: Diet 1: control (30% FM); Diet 2:24% FM + 6% SCP and Diet 3:18% FM + 12% SCP. Each diet was hand‐fed to triplicate tanks containing 30 rainbow trout fingerlings (4.99 ± 0.20 g) for 9 weeks. Apparent digestibility coefficients of SCP for dry matter, crude protein, lipid and energy were 60, 80, 93 and 74% respectively. Growth performance (final weight: 69–71 g), feed conversion ratios (0.91–0.94) as well as whole‐body protein and amino acid composition were unaffected by diets. However, Diet 3 significantly increased whole‐body crude fat and energy. Fish fed the SCP‐based diets had significantly higher expression for carnitine palmitoyltransferase‐1b (CPT1b), fatty acid delta 6 desaturase (FADS6) and fatty acid elongase 5 compared to the control. Overall, the quality of the SCP was similar as FM. Therefore, this product could enlarge the portfolio of alternative protein sources that can be used in fish diets and thus open a new market opportunity for use of a new feed resource in the feed industry.     

Partial replacement of soybean meal with Methylobacterium extorquens single‐cell protein in feeds for rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss Walbaum)

A feeding trial was conducted with juvenile rainbow trout (15–16 g initial weight) to assess the effects of including single‐cell protein (SCP) produced from Methylobacterium extorquens in trout feeds. Three isonitrogenous and isoenergetic diets were produced: a control diet and two experimental diets containing 5% or 10% bacterial protein meal replacing soybean meal. Triplicate tanks, each containing 35 fish, were fed each diet to apparent satiation in a constant‐temperature (15°C), flow‐through tank system for 12 weeks. No statistically significant differences in final fish weight or other fish growth parameters were observed. Similarly, feed efficiency parameters showed no significant differences among groups. Nutrient retention indices (protein, fat, energy) were relatively high and similar among fish in each dietary treatment group, as were whole body proximate compositions. Fish survival was high, with a small but statistically significant increase for the 10% SCP diet. Overall, results demonstrate that SCP from M. extorquens is a safe and effective alternative protein for rainbow trout diets at the low inclusion levels tested. Slightly lower weight gain in fish fed the 10% SCP diet was largely due to lower feed intake, suggesting that adding palatability‐enhancing ingredients to feeds may allow higher levels of M. extorquens SCP to be used without compromising fish growth.     

Dietary microbial phytase supplementation and the utilization of phosphorus, trace minerals and protein by rainbow trout [Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum)] fed soybean meal-based diets

Effects of thermal and enzymatic treatments of soybean meal on apparent absorption of total phosphorus, phytate phosphorus, nitrogen (protein), ash, calcium, magnesium, copper, iron, manganese, strontium and zinc were examined using rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum), as the test species. Absorption of the test nutrients was estimated using yttrium as an inert non-absorbable indicator. Thermal treatments (microwaving, dry roasting, steam heating, cooking) had no measurable effect on the apparent absorption of phosphorus and other minerals. Phytase supplementation increased the apparent absorption of phosphorus, nitrogen (protein), ash, calcium, magnesium, copper, iron, strontium and zinc in low-ash diets containing soybean meal, but had little effect in high-ash diets containing both soybean and fish meal. In low-ash diets, the apparent absorption of phosphorus increased in accord with the level of phytase added to the diet, from 27% (no phytase added) up to 90% (phytase added, 4000 units kg⁻¹ diet) or 93% (predigested with phytase, 200 units kg⁻¹ soybean meal). In high-ash diets, dietary acidification with citric acid decreased the effect of phytase, whereas in low-ash diets, acidification markedly increased the effect of the enzyme. Excretion of phosphorus in the faeces of fish fed a low-ash diet containing phytase-treated soybean meal was 0.32 g per kg diet consumed, a 95%−98% reduction compared with phosphorus excretion by fish consuming commercial trout feeds.     

Unity in function in the absence of consensus in sequence: role of leader peptides in export

Passage of proteins across membranes during export from their site of synthesis to their final destination is mediated by leader peptides that paradoxically exhibit a unity of function in spite of a diversity of sequence. These leader peptides act in at least two stages of the export process: at entry into the pathway and subsequently during translocation across the membrane. How selectivity is imposed on the system in the absence of a consensus among the sequences of leader peptides is the main issue discussed here.     

Utilization of fish and animal by-product meals in low-pollution feeds for rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum)

The apparent digestibilities (availabilities) of dry matter, protein, phosphorus and selected minerals in fish and animal by‐products were determined using rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum). Blood meal (ring‐dried), feather meal and deboned fish meal had relatively high concentrations of protein, low concentrations of phosphorus and many minerals, and high digestibilities (availabilities) of these nutrients. Other animal by‐products, however, had high concentrations of minerals, including phosphorus, which are associated with the bone fraction. Availabilities of manganese and zinc in the diet were reduced by the inclusion of high‐ash animal by‐products in the diet, whereas availabilities of potassium, sodium and copper were relatively unaffected. Dietary concentrations of bone minerals (calcium, phosphorus) and ash were inversely correlated with availabilities (% of intake) of most minerals except copper in the diet. Also, dietary concentrations of bone minerals correlated inversely with the net absorption (mg g^?1 diet) of zinc, manganese and magnesium in the diet. When rainbow trout were fed diets containing incremental concentrations of fish bones, the apparent availabilities of phosphorus, calcium, magnesium and iron decreased as fish bone content in the diet increased. Reducing the bone fraction of high‐ash (high‐phosphorus) by‐product meals is therefore an essential approach to using such ingredients in low‐pollution fish feeds.     

Bioencapsulation of erythromycin using adult brine shrimp, Artemia franciscana (Latreille)

Live adult brine shrimp, Artemia franciscana (Latreille), were enriched with erythromycin to determine if Artemia could accumulate therapeutic levels for subsequent feeding to young fish. Three trials were conducted to determine the erythromycin incorporation and survival rates of enriched Artemia when fed either liposomes containing erythromycin or various erythromycin suspensions. Erythromycin concentration in Artemia fed a liposome suspension was low (∼ 5 μg mL⁻¹) relative to Artemia fed the direct suspension (> 100 μg mL⁻¹) over the same time period. When enriched with suspensions up to 1 g erythromycin L⁻¹ sea water for 14 h, Artemia survival was not significantly affected ( P > 0.05) relative to controls. Using a suspension of 1 g L⁻¹, tissue erythromycin concentrations of 109 ± 16 μg erythromycin mL⁻¹  Artemia homogenate (mean ± SEM) were achieved after 12 h. Concentrations above 170 μg mL⁻¹ were obtained using suspensions of 2–5 g L⁻¹, but Artemia survival significantly ( P < 0.05) decreased.     

An in vitro method to determine phosphorus digestibility of rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum) feed ingredients

An in vitro method was developed to assess the digestibility of phosphorus in 12 plant and animal feed ingredients for rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum). The method simulates the gastrointestinal tract of the rainbow trout with regard to pH and gastrointestinal enzymes. Phosphorus solubility was measured after acid digestion (pH 3) with and without gastric enzymes, after alkaline digestion (pH 9) with and without intestinal enzymes, and after a two-step process involving acid and alkaline digestion. Commercially available digestive enzymes from mammals were compared with digestive enzymes from rainbow trout. Correlating in vitro digestibility with in vivo digestibility showed that acid digestion with both commercial enzymes ( r ²=0.98, P  < 0.05) and trout enzymes ( r ²=0.94, P  < 0.05) predicted the in vivo digestibility of animal feed ingredients. Alkaline digestion with both enzyme systems (commercial r ²=0.79; trout r ²=0.74, P  < 0.05) or without ( r ²=0.82, P  < 0.05) enzymes predicted the in vivo digestibility of ingredients from animal byproducts but not those from plant products. The in vitro digestibility with two enzyme steps (acid and alkaline) predicted in vivo digestibility of plant and animal ingredients ( r ²=0.79 for commercial enzymes and r ²=0.74 for trout enzymes) better than did one-step acid or alkaline digestion.     

Penetration of suberized periderm of a woody host by Phytophthora cinnamomi

The mechanisms by which Phytophthora cinnamomi zoospores infect inundated, above‐ground woody stem tissue are described. Using 4–6‐ and 18‐month‐old jarrah seedlings, the infection courts were identified and the invasion of the stems at sites of zoospore cyst binding were described. Stems were inoculated with a suspension of motile zoospores on the green stem/young periderm region. Light microscopy was used to examine penetration at sites of taxis, and fluorescent microscopy was used to examine penetration sites of seedlings with intact periderm. Two main infection courts were identified on stems: the emerging axillary shoot and the region of stem immediately surrounding an axillary shoot, where the periderm was thin or discontinuous. Invasion also occurred at sites where the developing shoot had not yet emerged but was at the stem surface. At these sites the pathogen also directly invaded through the thin‐walled phellem of the periderm surrounding the shoot. Zoospores of P. cinnamomi were not attracted to stomata on mature leaves or green stems. Penetration of the epidermal cell layer of the axillary bud leaf primordia was inter‐ and intra‐cellular; growth of hyphae in the periderm surrounding the shoot was intercellular; while in collenchyma it was inter‐ and intra‐cellular, being intercellular between polyphenolic‐rich cells. Exposed stem collenchyma was also directly invaded immediately adjacent to the young axillary shoot. Zoospores demonstrated taxis to sites of discontinuous periderm, similar to wounded areas where the outer protective layers of the plant are breached. This study presents the first evidence that P. cinnamomi is capable of intercellular penetration of suberized periderm.