Use of 2-aminobutane as a fumigant for control of gangrene,skin spot and silver scurf diseases of potato tubers

Summary Fumigation of tubers with 2-aminobutane (sec-butylamine) gas at a dosage of 200 mg/kg in simply made fumigation chambers gave very good control of the diseases gangrene (caused byPhoma exigua var.foveata) and skin spot (Oospora pustulans) if treatment was done within 14 days of harvesting. Some control of silver scurf disease (Helminthosporium solani) was also obtained, but results were always poorer than with gangrene or skin spot. Fumigation did not control tuber blight (Phytophthora infestans), dry rot (Fusarium solani var.caeruleum) and did not kill the sclerotia ofRhizoctonia solani. Since chemical analysis of treated peeled and boiled tubers, and crisps, granules and flakes made from treated tubers showed that they contained substantial residues of 2-aminobutane, the treatment can only be used on seed tubers. There were no significant residues in crops grown from treated tubers.

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Zusammenfassung Jedes Jahr k?nnen Pilzkrankheiten an Kartoffelknollen betr?chtliche Verluste verursachen. In Schottland ist die Phoma-Knollenf?ule, verursacht durch den PilzPhoma exigua var.foveata, die bedeutendste Krankheit, doch ist die Tüpfelfleckenkrankheit, hervorgerufen durchOospora pustulans, ebenfalls wichtig, vor allem weil sie die Keime bef?llt. Silberschorf, verursacht durchHelminthosporium solani, ist sehr verbreitet, aber obwohl er die Keime nicht bef?llt, werden durch ihn die Knollen missgebildet, und er verursacht Welke infolge des Wasserverlustes durch die besch?digte Schale. Begasung von Knollen mit 2-Aminobutan (sek-Butylamin)-Dampf in einer Dosierung von 200 mg/kg innerhalb 14 Tage nach der Ernte wurde als ein sehr gutes Mittel zur Bek?mpfung von Phoma-Knollenf?ule und Tüpfelfleckigkeit (Tabelle 5) befunden. In zwei Versuchen ergab die Begasung eine bessere Bek?mpfung von Phoma-Knollenf?ule als das Eintauchen in eine L?sung von Quecksilbermethoxy?thylchlorid, das 100 mg/kg Quecksilber enth?lt (Tabelle 6). Eine gewisse Bek?mpfung der Silberschorfkrankheit wurde mit 2-Aminobutan erzielt (Tabelle 7), aber die Ergebnisse waren immer schlechter als bei Phoma-Knollenf?ule und Tüpfelfleckigkeit. Phytophthora-Knollenf?ule (Phytophthora infestans) und Fusarium-Trockenf?ule (Fusarium solani var.caeruleum) wurden durch die Begasung nicht bek?mpft, und auch auf die Sklerotien vonRhizoctonia solani hatte, die Begasung keinen Einfluss. Die Beurteilung der F?ulen wurde an zwei Terminen vorgenommen, einmal im Februar und dann wieder im April, w?hrend die Schalenkrankheiten, Tüpfelfleckigkeit und Phoma-Knollenf?ule im April an gewaschenen Mustern von 50 oder 100 Knollen beurteilt wurden. Der Bau der Gaskammern (dargestellt in Abb. 1 und 2) wird kurz beschrieben und der Vorgang der Begasung diskutiert. Die Kammern sind für Gas-Innenkreislauf eingerichtet, das System ist verbunden mit einem Gebl?se und einem Verdampfer. Da das 2-Aminobutan-Luftgemisch durch einen losen Kartoffelhaufen dringt, wird die Chemikalie von den unteren Knollenschichten aufgenommen; aber da der Innenkreislauf anh?lt, findet eine Abgabe und Wiederaufnahme statt, so dass der Wirkstoff, wie sich bei Rückstandsanalysen gezeigt hat, m?glicherweise gleichm?ssig im Haufen verteilt wird. Es wurde festgestellt, dass bei einer Dosis von 200 mg/kg in 30–40 Minuten und bei Luftumw?lzung w?hrend weiteren zwei Stunden die Rückst?nde in Knollenmustern von unten und oben im Haufen ?hnlich waren (Tabelle 1). Rückst?nde von 2-Aminobutan waren in signifikantem Ausmass vorhanden in gesch?lten (Tabelle 2) und gesottenen Kartoffeln sowie in Chips (Tabelle 3), ferner in Flocken und Granulaten, die aus begasten Kartoffeln hergestellt wurden, so dass das Verfahren nur bei Pflanzkartoffeln angewendet werden kann. Analysen des Nachbaus von behandelten Knollen zeigte, dass sie keine signifikanten Rückst?nde enthalten (Tabelle 4). 2-Aminobutan wird leicht verdampft (Siedepunkt 63°C) und ist schwach giftig; die Giftigkeit beruht in erster Linie auf seiner Alkalinit?t. Gewisse Vorsichtsmassnahmen müssen getroffen werden, wenn diese Substanz zur Begasung von Kartoffeln verwendet wird; sie sind in einer formellen Gebrauchsanweisung beschrieben, die von den Autoren bezogen werden kann.

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Résumé Les maladies fongiques des tubercules de pomme de terre peuvent occasionner des pertes annuelles considérables. En Ecosse, la gangrène, causée par le champignonPhoma exigua var.foveata, est la maladie la plus grave mais, l'oosporiose, causée parOospora pustulans, est également importante, spécialement quand elle attaque les germes. La gale argentée, causée parHelminthosporium solani, est très commune, mais bien que n'attaquant pas les germes, elle détériore l'aspect des tubercules et provoque leur ramolissement par suite de la perte d'eau au travers de la peau endommagée. On a trouvé que la fumigation des tubercules avec la vapeur de 2-aminobutane (sec-butylamine), à la dose de 200 mg/kg dans les 14 jours qui suivent l'arrachage avait une très bonne efficacité dans la lutte contre la gangrène et l'oosporiose (tableau 5); de plus, dans deux essais, le résultat du traitement contre la gangrène a été supérieur au trempage dans une solution du chlorure de méthoxyethylmercurique à 100 mg/kg de mercure (tableau 6). Le 2-aminobutane a donné certains résultats dans le traitement de la gale argentée (tableau 7), mais ceux ci sont toujours inférieurs à ceux obtenus contre la gangrène et l'oosporiose. La fumigation n'a aucun effet contre le mildiou du tubercule (Phytophthora infestans) et la pourriture sèche (Fusarium solani var.caeruleum), pas plus que contre les sclérotes duRhizoctonia solani. La détermination des pourritures a été faite deux fois, une première fois en février et une seconde en avril, tandis que les déterminations des maladies de la peau, oosporiose et gangrène, ont été effectuées en avril sur des échantillons lavés de 50 ou 100 tubercules. Les auteurs décrivent brièvement la construction des chambres de fumigation (voir fig. 1 et 2) et expliquent le mécanisme de fumigation. Les chambres sont équipées pour la circulation forcée du gaz, grace à un ventilateur et un vaporisateur. Au moment où le mélange air — 2-aminobutane traverse le tas de pommes de terre, la substance chimique est absorbée par les couches inférieures de tubercules, mais grace à la circulation forcée, il se produit des phénomènes de ‘désaborption’ et de ‘réabsorption’ de telle sorte que, finalement, la substance chimique se répartit d'une mainière égale dans la masse de tubercules, comme l'indique l'analyse des résidus. Il a été démontré que si on applique la dose de 200 mg/kg pendant 30–40 minutes et qu'on réalise la circulation forcée pendant un minimum de 2 heures, les résidus dans les échantillons de tubercules sont identiques de la base au sommet du tas (tableau 1). Les résidus de 2-aminobutane sont présents en quantités significatives dans les tubercules pelés (tableau 2), bouillis et transformés en chips (tableau 3), de même dans les flocons et granulés fabriqués à partir de pommes de terre traitées, de sorte que le traitement ne peut s'appliquer qu'aux plants. L'analyse des récoltes issues de plants traités ne révèle aucune quantité significative de résidu (tableau 4). Le 2-aminobutane se vaporise aisément (63°C), est modérément toxique, la toxicité étant due en premier lieu à l'alcalinité. Il y a lieu de prendre certaines précautions dans l'emploi de cette substance dans la fumigation des pommes de terre, qui sont décrites dans le code d'emploi officiel que les auteurs peuvent fournir.

     

An Assessment of Bacterial Populations in a Static Windrow Compost Pile

ABSTRACT

Many companies, restaurants, colleges, as well as individual homeowners, have initiated green marketing campaigns, and the composting of food and yard wastes has become commonplace. Thus, it is essential to obtain a more complete understanding of the microbial populations present in such composting processes. The focus of this study was to identify bacterial populations in a static windrow compost pile initiated on a college campus containing food trim and tree debris. Given that the compost pile was initiated during the winter it was uniquely characterized by a pre-mesophilic stage in addition to the characteristic mesophilic, thermophilic, and cooling/maturation stages. Bacteria were cultured from each stage and were identified by sequencing the 16S rRNA gene. Dominating the numbers throughout the study were bacteria within the Bacillus and Bacillus-like genera. Actinobacteria were found primarily within the pre-mesophilic stage. The mesophilic and beginning thermophilic stages displayed the most diversity, characterized by several different genera within the Proteobacteria phylum. In contrast, during the late thermophilic stage, only bacteria within the Bacillus and Brevibacillus genera were cultured. Overall, 49 different species within 27 different genera, 13 families, and 4 phyla, were identified and several genera that have not been commonly associated with household compost. Thus, this study supports a role for the continuation of culture-dependent studies to more completely define the bacterial flora involved in various composting processes.     

Characterisation of the first Australian isolate of Neospora caninum from cattle

OBJECTIVE: To isolate Neospora caninum from a congenitally infected calf. PROCEDURE: A calf was obtained from a N. caninum infected dam maintained in a dairy herd of Holstein-Friesian cattle located on the south coast of NSW near Nowra. The calf was euthanased and samples collected for serology and pathology. Samples of brain and spinal cord of the calf were homogenised and injected into immunocompromised mice in an attempt to recover protozoa by in vivo culture. Sequential passage of brain homogenate through IFNgammaPKO mice was performed and tissue culture flasks were inoculated with brain homogenate. Parasites were identified by electron microscopy and DNA sequencing. The antigen profile of the isolate was analysed using Western blotting. Pathogenicity was examined in BALB/c mice and transmission of the parasite during pregnancy was examined in Qs mice. RESULTS: The calf was seropositive for N. caninum and histopathological examination of sections of cerebrum identified lesions consistent with a very mild infection with N. caninum. The parasites isolated using tissue culture were identified as N. caninum, based on the sequence of the ribosomal DNA and electron microscopy. The antigen profile of the new isolate was similar to that of the NC-Liverpool isolate, but quite different from that of Toxoplasma gondii. In BALB/c mice inoculated with the new isolate, severe clinical signs developed in only three of ten infected mice, compared with six of ten mice infected with NC-Liverpool. Mild to moderate nonsuppurative encephalitis was observed in BALB/c mice infected with the new isolate, compared with mice infected with NC-Liverpool, that developed severe nonsuppurative encephalitis. Transplacental transmission of the isolate arising from an acute infection during pregnancy occurred in about 87% of pups. CONCLUSION: This is the first isolation of bovine Neospora caninum in Australia. This isolate, called NC-Nowra, appears to be a less virulent form and may prove to be a suitable candidate for vaccine development.     

Should all degraded landscapes be restored? a look at the appalachian copper basin

Rehabilitation of degraded landscapes is generally regarded as the most appropriate objective. Occasionally, however, other aspects of the situation need to be considered and may lead to a different decision. This paper presents the case of the Appalachian Copper Basin, located mainly in south-eastern Tennessee, USA, which was degraded years ago as a result of copper mining and smelting. A brief history of the site is given, along with a review of some rehabilitative efforts. Discussion then turns to the way visitors and residents perceive this landscape, the impact these two viewpoints have had over the years, and how they have (or have not) changed. Landscape values are also examined, the interpretation of which largely determines a person's opinion toward rehabilitation. The point is made that some degraded landscapes can have value as degraded landscapes, in this instance now primarily historical and cultural. The current situation in the Copper Basin is summarized and an alternative course of action suggested. It is concluded that rehabilitation is not always the only, or even the most important, goal and that degraded landscapes of long standing sometimes require special consideration.     

Cloning and characterization of bovine low molecular weight GTPases (Rac1 and Rac2) and rho GDP-dissociation inhibitor 2 (D4-GDI)

GTPases of the Rho family play important roles in human leukocyte signal transduction pathways; however, little is known about the function of these proteins in bovine cells. In the present studies, we isolated molecular clones of bovine Rac1, Rac2, and the Rac/Rho GTPase regulatory protein D4-GDP dissociation inhibitor (D4-GDI) from a bovine bone marrow cDNA library. These clones contained complete open reading frames, encoding 192, 192, and 200 amino acids, respectively. Comparison of the bovine amino acid sequences with those of other species demonstrated a high degree of identity of these proteins across all species, suggesting that these proteins likely play conserved functional roles in bovine leukocyte signal transduction pathways. Comparative Western blotting of these proteins in human and bovine neutrophil cytosol demonstrated that Rac2 was the predominant Rac species and that D4-GDI was the predominant GDI species in bovine neutrophil cytosol. Despite the high degree of homology between human and bovine Rac2, some of the anti-peptide antibody probes prepared against human Rac2 failed to recognize the bovine homologue. We also showed by subcellular fractionation techniques that Rac2 is localized primarily to the cytosolic compartment of resting bovine neutrophils, but is translocated to the plasma membrane after stimulation with PMA. These findings suggest that Rac2 does play a role in bovine neutrophil activation. In addition, these data will be helpful in developing more specific probes for investigating the role of these proteins in bovine leukocyte signal transduction pathways and for studying various inflammatory diseases in cattle.     

Efficacy of monensin and tylosin in finishing diets based on steam-flaked corn with and without corn wet distillers grains with solubles

Three hundred seventy-one crossbred-yearling heifers (299 +/- 9 kg initial BW) were obtained from a common source and used in a randomized complete-block designed finishing study. A 2 x 3 factorial arrangement of treatments was used with one factor being diet: based on steam-flaked corn finishing diet (SFC) or SFC plus 25% (dry basis) corn wet distillers grains with solubles (WDGS). The second factor was feed additives: no added antibiotics (NONE), 300 mg of monensin daily (MONENSIN), or 300 mg of monensin + 90 mg of tylosin daily (MON+TYL). Main effect of diet resulted in no difference in DMI (P = 0.34). Heifers fed SFC gained 9% faster (P = 0.01) and were 7% more efficient (P = 0.01) than heifers fed WDGS. In addition, heifers fed SFC had 3% heavier (P = 0.01) HCW; 1% greater (P = 0.01) dress yield; and had 3% larger (P = 0.05) LM area. Marbling score and carcasses that graded USDA Choice or better were both greater (P /= 0.12) among feed additive treatments. Kidney, pelvic, and heart fat and s.c. fat thickness at the 12th rib were also not different (P >/= 0.55) for main effects of diet and feed additive. There was a tendency (P = 0.09) for a diet x feed additive interaction for the most severe (A+) liver abscesses. Heifers fed NONE yielded the greatest percentage (16%) of A+ livers in the SFC treatment, whereas heifers fed MON+TYL yielded the greatest percentage (10%) in the WDGS treatment. Including wet distillers grains with solubles in diets based on steam-flaked corn decreased finishing heifer performance, HCW, and marbling. Tylosin addition tended to decrease severity of liver abscesses in diets containing SFC, but not in diets containing WDGS. These data indicate that monensin and tylosin may not be as effective when used in steam-flaked corn diets with 25% WDGS.     

Analysis of surface antigen expression and host defense function in leukocytes from calves heterozygous or homozygous for bovine leukocyte adhesion deficiency

OBJECTIVE: To analyze surface antigen expression and functional responses of leukocytes from calves heterozygous and homozygous for bovine leukocyte adhesion deficiency (BLAD). ANIMALS: 8 clinically normal calves, 4 calves heterozygous for BLAD, and 4 calves homozygous for BLAD. PROCEDURE: Surface antigen expression was examined by flow cytometric analysis of leukocytes stained with monoclonal antibodies. Neutrophil function analyses included phagocytosis and killing of Candida albicans and measurement of respiratory burst activity using cytochrome c and dihydrorhodamine 123 assays. Differential leukocyte counts also were performed. RESULTS: Leukocytes from heterozygous calves were similar to those of clinically normal calves with respect to surface antigen expression, C albicans phagocytosis and killing, and respiratory burst activity. In contrast, neutrophils from calves homozygous for BLAD had significantly reduced phagocytic and yeast-killing capacity but had higher respiratory burst activity than cells from clinically normal or heterozygous calves. Homozygous calves also had extreme neutrophilia and significantly more immature neutrophils. CONCLUSIONS: The heterozygous BLAD genotype does not cause detectable functional differences in leukocytes, compared with those of clinically normal calves. In contrast, leukocytes from homozygous calves seem to upregulate alternative host defense capabilities (eg, respiratory burst activity) to partially compensate for the lack of typical adherence-dependent host defense functions.