Reponses of mamey sapote (Pouteria sapota) trees to continuous and cyclical flooding in calcareous soil

Physiological and growth responses of ‘Pantin’ and ‘Magana’ mamey sapote (Pouteria sapota) trees to continuous and cyclical flooding were studied in a series of experiments. Trees were grown in containers in a very gravelly loam soil and were subjected to continuous flooding of the root zone for 30–66 days (Experiments 1 and 2) or alternating flooding–unflooding cycles for 50 days (Experiments 3–5). For all experiments, the control treatment consisted of nonflooded trees. Net CO₂ assimilation (A) and stomatal conductance (g_s) decreased within 3 days of continuous flooding and internal CO₂ concentration was significantly higher in leaves of flooded than nonflooded plants. In the cyclic flooding experiments, trees were flooded in 3- to 6-day cycles and then unflooded for the same time periods. Stomatal conductance and A decreased within 3 days of flooding, leaf epinasty occurred between days 5 and 10, leaf senescence and abscission occurred between days 15 and 30, and branch dieback and tree death occurred between days 30 and 60. Three cycles of 3-day flooding and 3-day recovery of trees had little effect on leaf gas exchange of ‘Magaña’ trees. Similarly, ‘Pantin’ trees survived 3 cycles of 6 days of flooding interspersed with 3–6 days of recovery despite consistent decreases in g_s and A during flooding. Stomatal conductance and A of both mamey sapote cultivars decreased within a few days of flooding and this species appears to have intermediate flooding tolerance compared with other tropical fruit crops based on tree survival.     

Gibberellin-mediated suppression of floral initiation in the long-day plant Rhododendron cv. Hatsugiri

In a number of woody perennial species a decrease in gibberellins concentrations in the apical meristems is required for floral initiation to occur. In Rhododendron, applied gibberellins inhibit flowering and gibberellin biosynthesis inhibitors promote flowering. However, unlike previous reports on other Rhododendron cultivars, Rhododendron cv. Hatsugiri is a faculatitive LDP. It was therefore unknown how gibberellins regulate flowering in this cultivar and if non-inductive short daylengths stimulate the productions of endogenous gibberellins to suppress flowering. By inhibiting floral initiation while not stimulating vegetative growth we found applications of GA₅ to best match the natural response of Rhododendron cv. Hatsugiri under short-day regimes. GA₅-mediated effects on flowering have previously been reported to be due to conversion to GA₆, however, GA₅ was found to be present in tissue samples at up to 0.57 ng g⁻¹ FW, while GA₆ was never found. In addition, foliar applications of [¹⁴C] GA₅ were not found to have metabolised to GA₆. In line with the hypothesis that gibberellins inhibit floral initiation in short days in Rhododendron cv. Hatsugiri, the concentration of GA₂₀, a precursor to many bioactive gibberellins, was higher in leaf tissues from plants in short days, compared to those in permissive long days when analysed using GC–MS.     

Identification of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ascochyta rabiei</Emphasis> disease resistance in chickpea genotypes

Ascochyta blight (AB) disease, caused by the fungus Ascochyta rabiei, is a major yield limiting factor of chickpea in Australia and around the world. The aggressiveness of six A. rabiei isolates was identified using 3 chickpea varieties (Jimbour, Flipper and Yorker). These AB isolates were isolated from chickpea fields in northern NSW, one of the major chickpea production regions in Australia. Each of the six isolates produced a different aggressiveness pattern and isolate 4859 was found to be the most aggressive. The AB resistance in 16 international and Australian chickpea genotypes was then investigated by inoculating the plants with the most aggressive isolate and a mixture of the other 5 isolates. Resistance to both the most aggressive isolate and the mixed isolates has been identified in 5 genotypes (ICCV 98813, Flipper, ICCV 05111, ICCV 98801, Jimbour #1) while 10 entries (Howzat, ICCV 06108 and ICCV 98818, Jimbour, ICCV 96852, ICCV 06107, ICCV 98816, Yorker, FLIP97-114C, ICCV 96853) were moderately resistant. Only one genotype (Bumper) appeared to be susceptible to both inoculums. There was large variation observed in the pathogenicity of the isolates suggesting that the six AB isolates represent several different pathogen strains. Significant differences in leaf infection rate, plant infection rate, plant death rate and disease development were identified among the chickpea genotypes tested. These findings suggest that these chickpea genotypes carry different resistant genes, which can be exploited in breeding programmes to develop high levels of disease resistance.     

A Comparison of In Situ Constant and Falling Head Permeameter Tests to Assess the Distribution of Clogging Within Horizontal Subsurface Flow Constructed Wetlands

Clogging is the main operational problem associated with horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetlands (HSSF CWs). The measurement of saturated hydraulic conductivity has proven to be a suitable technique to assess clogging within HSSF CWs. The vertical and horizontal distribution of hydraulic conductivity was assessed in two full-scale HSSF CWs by using two different in situ permeameter methods (falling head (FH) and constant head (CH) methods). Horizontal hydraulic conductivity profiles showed that both methods are correlated by a power function (FH?=?CH^0.7821, r ²?=?0.76) within the recorded range of hydraulic conductivities (0?C70?m/day). However, the FH method provided lower values of hydraulic conductivity than the CH method (one to three times lower). Despite discrepancies between the magnitudes of reported readings, the relative distribution of clogging obtained via both methods was similar. Therefore, both methods are useful when exploring the general distribution of clogging and, specially, the assessment of clogged areas originated from preferential flow paths within full-scale HSSF CWs. Discrepancy between methods (either in magnitude and pattern) aroused from the vertical hydraulic conductivity profiles under highly clogged conditions. It is believed this can be attributed to procedural differences between the methods, such as the method of permeameter insertion (twisting versus hammering). Results from both methods suggest that clogging develops along the shortest distance between water input and output. Results also evidence that the design and maintenance of inlet distributors and outlet collectors appear to have a great influence on the pattern of clogging, and hence the asset lifetime of HSSF CWs.     

Spatial and temporal variations in the erosion threshold of fine riverbed sediments

Purpose

Lowland chalk streams in the UK are experiencing increased deposition of fine sediment due to changes in land-use practices, channel modifications, and groundwater abstraction. The excessive fine sediment deposits have been linked to benthic habitat degradation, the obstruction of surface?Cgroundwater flow, and the storage of contaminants, such as nutrients and pesticides. While research has been conducted on the provenance, transport, deposition, and storage of fine sediment in chalk streams, none has expressly investigated the erosion of fine sediment deposits.

Materials and methods

A year-long field survey was conducted in two reaches of the Frome-Piddle catchment (Dorset, UK) to quantify spatial and temporal variations in the erosion thresholds of surficial fine sediment deposits. Erosion thresholds were measured at randomly located points within areas of sediment accumulation using a cohesive strength meter (CSM). The threshold measurements were paired with sediment cores for analysis of the physical, chemical, and biological properties of the sediment. Spatial and temporal patterns in the erosion thresholds of fine sediment were analyzed using nonparametric statistical tests and visualized with GIS. The sediment properties underlying the variations in erosion thresholds were examined through correlation and linear regression analyses.

Results and discussion

Erosion thresholds varied significantly over space and time within the stream reaches. Erosion thresholds were greater for fine sediment deposits found in the center of the channel than in the margins. Thresholds were highest in September 2008 and declined substantially to a minimum in May 2009, with a small peak in March 2009, indicating an annual cycle in erosion thresholds. Effective particle size was identified statistically as the most important sediment property influencing erosion thresholds and was probably underlying much of the spatial variation within the reaches. None of the measured sediment properties adequately characterized the temporal variation in erosion thresholds, however, the results suggest that biological sediment properties and water geochemistry (i.e., cation content) may play a role.

Conclusions

By identifying significant spatial and temporal variations in erosion thresholds, this study provides valuable information on the stability of fine sediment deposits, and sediment-bound contaminants, in lowland river systems. This is a crucial step in assessing their local environmental impacts and developing models of fine sediment transport for the effective management of catchment sediment budgets and water resources.     

The effect of harvest date and inoculation on the yield, fermentation characteristics and feeding value of kale silage

Using new harvesting and ensiling technologies, it is now possible to ensile kale ( Brassica oleracea ) successfully. However, there is little information available regarding the optimum time for harvest. The aim of this 2-year study was to compare the yield, fermentation characteristics and feeding value of kale harvested at different stages of growth, and ensiled with and without a bacterial inoculant. During Year 1 the crop was harvested after 15, 18 and 20 weeks of growth. The yield at each harvest was similar, but as the crop matured the crude protein (CP) concentration and buffering capacity decreased significantly, and there was a marked increase in the water-soluble carbohydrate (WSC) concentration. During Year 2 the crop was harvested at 14 and 17 weeks of growth. Again, the stage of maturity did not affect yield and, on this occasion, the chemical composition of the crop was unaffected by harvest date. However, the WSC and CP concentrations of the crop were lower in Year 2 than in Year 1, possibly as a result of differences in fertilizer regime. Each of the silages produced in Year 2 was offered to six Suffolk cross wether lambs, aged 10 months, to measure voluntary intake, in vivo digestibility and nitrogen retention. Neither harvesting date nor the use of an inoculant affected voluntary intake or nitrogen retention by the lambs. However, in vivo digestibility was higher in the kale silage harvested after 14 weeks of growth and when an inoculant was applied. The results obtained suggest that harvesting kale after 14 weeks of growth can produce highly digestible silage with a high CP concentration. Although delaying harvest until 18 weeks of growth will probably result in a decrease in the CP concentration of the crop, it should also lead to an increase in the WSC concentration of the crop, ensuring a more reliable fermentation.     

Markers for maturity and senescence in the potato crop

Summary Maturity in the potato crop is, as yet, ill defined. In an experiment in which nitrogen was applied pre-planting in six treatments, the opportunity was taken to follow changes in growth and development together with changes in three possible measures of physiological activity. A sudden decline in the concentration of sugars in the petiole sap was best associated with changes in crop growth development and may be an appropriate indicator of the onset of maturity and then senescence.

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Zusammenfassung Das Einsetzen von Reife und Seneszenz bei Kartoffeln ist nicht genau definiert. Bekannt sind jedoch eine Reihe von Faktoren, um dieses zu modifizieren: zum Beispiel die Stickstoffversorgung. In einem Versuch wurde der Stickstoff (als Kalksalpeter, ‘nitrochalk’) ausgelassen (N0) oder mit 40, 80, 160 und 240 kg ha⁻¹ zur Pflanzzeit (N1 bis N4 entsprechend) verabreicht. Eine gesplittete Anwendung von N, 80 kg ha⁻¹ zur Pflanzung und 80 kg ha⁻¹ zur Pflanzung und 80 kg ha⁻¹ eine Woche nach Knollenbildung (N5) war eingeschlossen. Unterschiede im Blattfl?chenindex (LAI, Abb. 1), Gesamtproduktion an Trockenmasse (Abb. 2) und Trockenmasse-Konzentration der Knollen (Abb. 3) wurden untersucht, um den Einfluss des Grades der Stickstoffanwendung auf das Einsetzen der Seneszenz (Abb. 1 und 2) und der Reife (Abb. 2 und 3) zu ermitteln. Die Konzentrationen an Gesamtchlorophyll (a+b) in ausgebreiteten Bl?ttern (Abb. 4 und 5) und die Zuckerkonzentration (Abb. 6) sowie die Nitrationen (Abb. 7) im Saft der Petiolen wurden untersucht, um m?gliche physiologische Indikatoren für das Einsetzen von Reife und Seneszenz zu erhalten. Die Konzentration des Gesamtchlorophylls in den Bl?ttern war zu jeder Zeit eine Funktion der H?he der Stickstoff-Applikation (Abb. 5) und sank graduell w?hrend des sp?teren Teils der Wachstumsperiode (Abb. 4). Es bedurfte keiner Kennzeichnung der Schwellenh?he für das Einsetzen der Seneszenz. Die Konzentration sowohl an Saccharose wie auch NO₃ im Petiolensaft zeigte scharfe Rückg?nge (Abb. 6 und 7), welche unter Einfluss hoher N-Gaben sp?ter erfolgten. Dennoch zeigt ein Vergleich der Zeiten dieser kurzen Rückg?nge mit Ver?nderung beim LAI, bei der Gesamttrockenmasse-Produktion und der Trockenmasse-Konzentration der Knollen (Tabelle 1), dass die Ver?nderung in der NO₃-Konzentration nicht mit Ver?nderungen in Pflanzenwachstum und-entwicklung assoziiert war; der Abfall der Saccharose-Konzentration stimmte jedoch gut überein.

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Résumé Le début de la maturité et de la sénescence de la culture de pomme de terre n'est pas bien défini mais on connait un certain nombre de facteurs qui le modifient, par example la nutrition azotée. Dans cette expérimentation l'azote est apporté aux doses de 0-40-80-160 et 240 kg/ha à la plantation (respectivement N0 à N4). Un double apport d'azote, 80 kg/ha à la plantation et 80 kg/ha une semaine après la tubérisation (N5) est inclu à l'essai. La modification de l'index de Surface Foliaire (LAI) (fig. 1), de la production totale de matière sèche (fig. 2) et de la matière sèche des tubercules (fig. 3) est suivie pour montrer l'effet des doses d'azote apportées sur la date de sénescence (fig. 1 et 2) et de maturité (fig. 2 et 3). La concentration en chlorophylle totale (a+b) dans les feuilles bien développées (fig. 4 et 5) ainsi que celle des sucres (fig. 6) et des ions nitrate (fig. 7) dans le jus pétiolaire ont été étudiées en tant qu'indicateurs physiologiques possibles de la sńescence et de la maturité. La concentration en chlorophylle totale dans les feuilles dépendait des doses d'azote apportées (fig. 5) et diminuait progressivement au fur et à mesure de l'avancement de la saison culturale (fig. 4). Elle ne donnait pas de seuil limite pour le début de la sénescence. La concentration en saccharose et en NO₃ dans le jus pétiolaire montrait une chute importante mais tardive avec les fortes doses d'azote. Cependant, la comparaison de la durée de cette courte déclinaison avec les modifications du LAI, de la production totale de matière sèche et de la teneur en matière sèche des tubercules montrait que la variation du taux de NO₃ n'était pas associée à l'évolution du développement de la culture, tandis que celle de la teneur en saccharose concordait bien. Nous suggérons que lorsque la concentration en saccharose des pétioles de feuilles bien développées du sommet de la plante chute fortement, les potentiels de croissance et d'accumulation de matière sèche dans les tubercules (tableau 1) deviennent limités car ils ont atteint leur maximum.

     

The pattern of starch and protein degradation in tubers

Summary Detectable breakdown of tuber starch and protein occurred some time after sprout emergence (planting depth 15 cm), and the rate of hydrolysis was independent of the number of sprouting eyes present. Reserve breakdown was first seen around regions of inner phloem, the zone of depletion subsequently spreading throughout the perimedulla. Tissue external to the vascular ring was depleted at a later date.

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Zusammenfassung Kinetik und makroskopische Verteilung des St?rke- und Proteinabbaues wurden an keimenden Knollen der Sorte Maris Piper untersucht. Dazu wurden zwei Serien von Knollen vorbereitet, eine Reihe mit einem keimenden Auge, die andere mit drei keimenden Augen, die anderen Augen wurden entfernt. Die Knollen wurden in feuchten Kompost bei 15°C im Dunkeln gepflanzt und in regelm?ssigen Intervallen innerhalb von 4 Monaten geerntet. W?hrend dieser Periode erreichten die Keime beider Serien ein Gesamttrockengewicht von ungef?hr 50% des Knollentrockengewichtes zum Zeitpunkt des Pflanzens. Wurde die Zunahme des Keimtrockengewichtesauf das Auge bezogen, so ergab sich eine Abnahme des Keimtrockengewichtes mit zunehmender Augenzahl (Abb. 1). Die Keime stehen daher in Konkurrenz zu den verfügbaren Reserven. Die Bedeutung dieser Konkurrenz nimmt mit der Zeit zu. Bei einer Pflanztiefe von 15 cm erschienen die Keime nach 20 Tagen, ein erkennbarer Zusammenbruch von St?rke- und Proteinreserven in den Knollen konnte aber erst weitere 20 Tage sp?ter beobachtet werden (Abb. 2a und b). Nach 120 Tagen betrugen die St?rke- und Proteingehalte nur noch 10% der ursprünglichen Gehalte, aber es zeigte sich kein überein-stimmender Einfluss der Zahl der keimenden Augen pro Knolle auf die Abbauraten der beiden Reservestoffe. Für vor und innerhalb des Gef?ssbündelringes gelegenes Gewebe waren die Abbauraten ?hnlich aber die St?rke-und Proteingehalte waren im Gewebe vor dem Gef?ssbündelring betr?chtlich h?her. Unterschiede in den St?rkegehalten dieser beiden Gewebe spiegelten den Intraknollengradienten im Trockenmassegehalt wieder und nicht Unterschiede im Prozentsatz der Trockenmasse verursacht durch St?rke (Tab. 1). Das Muster des Reservestoffabbaues wurde an 1 mm dicken L?ngs- und Querschnitten durch die Knollenmitte histochemisch unter-sucht. Der Abbau von St?rke und Protein begann in der Perimedulla in der N?he des Gef?ssbündelringes in Zonen, die mit der Verteilung des inneren Phloems übereinzustimmen schienen (Abb. 3 und 4). Die Abbauzone breitete sich dann in der gesamten Perimedulla aus. Das Gewebe vor dem Gef?ssbündelring zeigte als letztes den Abbau und auch hier ergaben sich Hinweise, dass der Abbau in den Phloemzonen erfolgte.

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Résumé La cinétique et la répartition macroscopique de la dégradation de l'amidon ainsi que des protéines sont étudiées au cours de la germination des tubercules de la variété Maris Piper. Deux lots de tubercules sont préparés. l'un composé de tubercules n'ayant qu'un seul germe et l'autre de tubercules porteurs de 3 germes. Les germes non désirés sont retirés. Les tubercules sont plantés dans un compost humide à 15°C, à l'obscurité puis prélevés régulièrement durant une période de 4 mois. Au delà de cette période, les germes des tubercules des deux lots atteignent un poids sec total d'environ 50% du poids sec des tubercules à la plantation. Lorsque l'accumulation du poids sec est exprimée en poids par germe, l'augmentation du nombre de germes réduit le taux de poids sec accumulé (fig.1). Ceci montre que les germes sont en compétition, quant à l'utilisation des réserves disponibles. L'importance de cette compétition augmente dans le temps. Four une plantation à 15 cm de profondeur, l'émergence des germes a lieu après 20 jours, mais la chute du taux d'amidon et des réserves en protéines n'est observée de fa?on notable qu'une vingtaine de jours plus tard (fig. 2a et 2b). Après 120 jours, les taux de protéines et d'amidon sont réduits à environ 10% des taux initiaux et l'augmentation du nombre de germes par tubercule n'entraine aucune diminution décelable de ceux-ci. Des taux similaires de dégradation sont apparus dans les tissus situés des deux c?tés de l'anneau vasculaire mais la teneur en amidon et en protéines est plus élevée dans le tissu externe. Des différences de teneurs entre ces tissus reflètent le gradient de matière sèche à l'intérieur du tubercule mais pas les différences du taux de matière sèche expliqué par l'amidon (tabl. 1). Une analyse histochimique de la localisation de la dégradation des réserves est réalisée à partir de coupes longitudinales et transversales d'l mm d'épaisseur prélevées dans la partie centrale du tubercule. La dégradation de l'amidon et des protéines commence dans la zone périmédullaire adjacente à l'anneau vasculaire, sous forme de taches qui semblent co?ncider avec le phloème interne (fig. 3 et 4). La zone de dégradation s'étend ensuite à travers toute la zone périmédullaire. Le tissu extérieur à l'anneau vasculaire subit cette dégradation en dernier, celle-ci apparaissant également au niveau du phloème.