Effects of tilling no-till soil on losses of atrazine and glyphosate to runoff water under variable intensity simulated rainfall

Herbicides released through agricultural activities to surface waters and drinking water systems represent a risk to human and environmental health, as well as a cost to municipalities for removal. This study focuses on the viability of glyphosate tolerant cropping systems as an alternative to atrazine-based systems, and the impact of tilling historically no-till ground on the runoff pollution potential of these systems. Variable intensity field rainfall simulations were performed on 2 m long × 1 m wide plots within a field in first-year disk and harrow following no-till (CT), and within a long-term no-tilled (NT) field, both treated with atrazine and glyphosate according to label. Rainfall sequence was: 50 mm h⁻¹ for 50 min followed by 75 mm h⁻¹ for 15 min, 25 mm h⁻¹ for 15 min, and 100 mm h⁻¹ for 15 min. Runoff was collected at regular time intervals during two simulated rainfall events and analyzed for herbicide concentration, sediment content, and volume. Maximum glyphosate concentration in runoff was 233 μg L⁻¹ for NT and 180 μg L⁻¹ for CT (approximately 33% and 26% of the maximum contaminant limit (MCL) for glyphosate (700 μg L⁻¹), respectively, while maximum atrazine concentrations in runoff was 303 μg L⁻¹ for NT and 79 μg L⁻¹ for CT (approximately 100 times and 26 times the atrazine MCL (3 μg L⁻¹)). Atrazine concentration and loading were significantly higher in runoff from NT plots than from CT plots, whereas glyphosate concentration and loading were impacted by tillage treatment to a much lesser degree. Results suggest that glyphosate-based weed management may represent a lower drinking water risk than atrazine-based weed management, especially in NT systems.     

Heterotrophic and autotrophic nitrification in two acid pasture soils

Laboratory incubation experiments, using ¹⁵N-labeling techniques and simple analytical models, were conducted to measure heterotrophic and autotrophic nitrification rates in two acid soils (pH 4.8-5.3; 1/5 in H₂O) with high organic carbon contents (6.2-6.8% in top 5 cm soil). The soils were from pastures located near Maindample and Ruffy in the Northeast Victoria, Australia. Gross rates of N mineralization, nitrification and immobilization were measured. The gross rates of autotrophic nitrification were 0.157 and 0.119 μg N g⁻¹ h⁻¹ and heterotrophic nitrification rates were 0.036 and 0.009 μg N g⁻¹ h⁻¹ for the Maindample and Ruffy soils, respectively. Heterotrophic nitrification accounted for 19% and 7% of the total nitrification in the Maindample and Ruffy soils, respectively. The heterotrophic nitrifiers used organic N compounds and no as the substrate for nitrification.     

Below ground carbon turnover and greenhouse gas exchanges in a sub-arctic wetland

Here we present results from a field experiment in a sub-arctic wetland near Abisko, northern Sweden, where the permafrost is currently disintegrating with significant vegetation changes as a result. During one growing season we investigated the fluxes of CO₂ and CH₄ and how they were affected by ecosystem properties, i.e., composition of species that are currently expanding in the area (Carex rotundata, Eriophorum vaginatum and Eriophorum angustifolium), dissolved CH₄ in the pore water, substrate availability for methane producing bacteria, water table depth, active layer, temperature, etc. We found that the measured gas fluxes over the season ranged between: CH₄ 0.2 and 36.1 mg CH₄ m⁻² h⁻¹, Net Ecosystem Exchange (NEE) −1000 and 1250 mg CO₂ m⁻² h⁻¹ (negative values meaning a sink of atmospheric CO₂) and dark respiration 110 and 1700 mg CO₂ m⁻² h⁻¹. We found that NEE, photosynthetic rate and CH₄ emission were affected by the species composition. Multiple stepwise regressions indicated that the primary explanatory variables for NEE was photosynthetic rate and for respiration and photosynthesis biomass of green leaves. The primary explanatory variables for CH₄ emissions were depth of the water table, concentration of organic acid carbon and biomass of green leaves. The negative correlations between pore water concentration and emission of CH₄ and the concentrations of organic acid, amino acid and carbohydrate carbon indicated that these compounds or their fermentation by-products were substrates for CH₄ formation. Furthermore, calculation of the radiative forcing of the species expanding in the area as a direct result of permafrost degradation and a change in hydrology indicate that the studied mire may act as an increasing source of radiative forcing in future.     

Influences of Cadmium and Zinc Interaction and Humic Acid on Metal Accumulation in Ceratophyllum Demersum

Interactions between Zn and Cd on the accumulation of these metals in coontail, Ceratophyllum demersum were studied at different metal concentrations. Plants were grown in nutrient solution containing Cd (0.05–0.25 mg l^?1) and Zn (0.5–5 mgl^?1). High concentrations of Zn caused a significant decrease in Cd accumulation. In general, adding Cd solution decreased Zn accumulation in C. demersum except at the lowest concentration of Zn in which the Zn accumulation was similar to that without Cd. C. demersum could accumulate high concentrations of both Cd and Zn. The influence of humic acid (HA) on Cd and Zn accumulation was also studied. HA had a significant effect on Zn accumulation in plants. 2 mg l^?1 of HA reduced Zn accumulation at 1 mg l^?1 level (from 2,167 to 803 mg kg^?1). Cd uptake by plant tissue, toxicity symptoms and accumulation at 0.25 and 0.5 mg l^?1, were reduced (from 515 to 154 mg kg^?1 and from 816 to 305 mg kg^?1, respectively) by addition of 2 mg l^?1 of HA. Cd uptake reached a maximum on day 9 of treatment, while that of Zn was observed on day 15. Long-term accumulation study revealed that HA reduced toxicity and accumulation of heavy metals.     

N-Source Effects on Temporal Distribution of NO3-N Leaching Losses to Subsurface Drainage Water

Understanding the temporal distribution of NO₃-N leaching losses from subsurface drained ‘tile’ fields as a function of climate and management practices can help develop strategies for its mitigation. A field study was conducted from 1999 through 2003 to investigate effects of the most vulnerable application of pig manure (fall application and chisel plow), safe application of pig manure (spring application and no-tillage) and common application of artificial nitrogen (UAN spring application and chisel plow) on NO₃-N leaching losses to subsurface drainage water beneath corn (Zea mays L.)–soybean (Glycine max L.) rotation systems as a randomized complete block design. The N application rates averaged over five years ranged from 166 kg-N ha^?1 for spring applied manure to 170 kg-N ha^?1 for UAN and 172 kg-N ha^?1 for fall applied manure. Tillage and nitrogen source effects on tile flow and NO₃-N leaching losses were not significant (P?<?0.05). Fall applied manure with CP resulted in significantly greater corn grain yield (10.8 vs 10.4 Mg ha^?1) compared with the spring manure-NT system. Corn plots with the spring applied manure-NT system gave relatively lower flow weighted NO₃-N concentration of 13.2 mg l^?1 in comparison to corn plots with fall manure-CP (21.6 mg l^?1) and UAN-CP systems (15.9 mg l^?1). Averaged across five years, about 60% of tile flow and NO₃-N leaching losses exited the fields during March through May. Growing season precipitation and cycles of wet and dry years primarily controlled NO₃-N leaching losses from tile drained fields. These results suggest that spring applied manure has potential to reduce NO₃-N concentrations in subsurface drainage water and also strategies need to be developed to reduce early spring NO₃-N leaching losses.     

Spatial and Seasonal Variations in Nitrogen Leaching and Acidity across Four Acid-impacted Regions of the UK

This study examines the seasonal variability in levels of nitrogen (N) leaching and acidity in four acid impacted upland regions of the UK: the South Pennines, Snowdonia, Galloway and the Mourne Mountains. All regions are acidified, with median pH values of <5.5. The South Pennines exhibit excess sulphate concentrations an order of magnitude higher than those for other regions and have the lowest pH values of all the regions. Nitrate concentrations are highest in the South Pennines (seasonal medians 20–26 μeq l^?1) and the Mourne Mountains (seasonal medians 9–26 μeq l^?1). Surface water in the Mourne Mountains is the most highly N impacted in terms of the proportional contribution of N to acidity. All N species exhibit seasonality, with greater retention by catchment soils and vegetation in August. This seasonality is most marked in Snowdonia and least marked in the South Pennines. This implies that the South Pennines have reached an advanced stage of N saturation. Despite the reductions in S deposition, xSO₄ is the dominant anion for all sites in the South Pennine and Snowdonia regions. A strong negative relationship between the contribution of NO₃ to total acidity and DON was observed for all regions except the South Pennines. It is hypothesized that catchments dominated by organic rich soils produced more DON and have an increased capacity to immobilise NO₃. Seasonal nitrogen budgets show that over 60% of the N inputs are retained within catchments, and no site retains all incoming N throughout the year.     

Spatial and Temporal Variability in Dissolved Inorganic Nitrogen Fluxes at the Sediment–Water Interface in Lake Illawarra, Australia

In this study, benthic flux measurements of inorganic nitrogen (i.e., $ {\text{NH}}^{ + }_{4} $ , $ {\text{NO}}^{ - }_{2} $ ?+? $ {\text{NO}}^{ - }_{3} $ ) were made using a batch incubation system at different stations (i.e., shallow sandy macrophyte and unvegetated beds, and deep central mud) over four seasons in Lake Illawarra, NSW, Australia, to study the influence of different primary producers (i.e., seagrasses, microphytobenthos (MPB) and macroalgae) and/or different sediment types (i.e., sand or mud) on the benthic fluxes. In general, nutrient fluxes displayed typical diel variations, with lower flux out of sediments (release) or enhanced uptake by the sediment in the light, due to the photosynthetic activities of the plant-MPB-sediment community in Lake Illawarra during photosynthetic periods. A distinct seasonal pattern of inorganic-N fluxes was also observed (e.g., the marked difference between summers 2002 and 2003). This may be explained by the seasonal variations in the biomass and activity (growing or decay phases) of MPB, seagrass and macroalgae, which may influence their nutrient assimilation and alter the chemical conditions of surface sediments that influence the benthic geochemical processes and thus benthic nutrient fluxes. On an annual basis, unvegetated sediments displayed net DIN effluxes, while seagrass beds showed a net DIN uptake, and the highest DIN uptakes coincided with the largest standing crop of seagrass and/or macroalgae and the highest levels of benthic community production. This may be due to the enhanced denitrification and/or assimilation activity by rooted plants and macroalgae, and the effect is most efficient during periods of net growth (e.g., in Spring 2002).     

Tillage effects on soil organic matter in density fractions of a Cerrado Oxisol

Reclamation of Brazilian cerrados (savannas) has been intensified in the last decades, with implications for soil quality and soil organic matter (SOM) dynamics. Studying the impact of different tillage systems is essential to define better strategies for land use in Cerrado, which may favor C sequestration and improve soil quality. We used density fractionation and ¹³C natural abundance to assess changes in SOM in an Oxisol previously under a cerrado sensu-stricto following 30 years of cultivation. The objectives of the study were to: (i) evaluate the long-term impact of tillage systems on SOM stocks in a Dark Red Latosol (Oxisol) from the Cerrado Biome, and (ii) better understand the dynamics of SOM in different density fractions of this soil. Cultivation led to compaction, which significantly increased soil bulk density. This resulted in the systematic overestimation of C and N stocks in cultivated areas when compared to the natural cerrado. Conversion of the cerrado into cropland using plow tillage (PT) or no-tillage (NT) system did not alter the total C (100 Mg ha⁻¹) and N (7 Mg ha⁻¹) stocks in the first 45 cm depth at the end of 30 years of cultivation. However, about 22% of the total C was replaced by C from maize. The relative replacement of C decreased following the order: free light fraction (F-LF)>heavy fraction (HF)>occluded light fraction (O-LF). The low substitution in the O-LF was attributed to a possible presence of charcoal. Converting cerrado into cropland significantly decreased F-LF quantity. The proportions of C replacement in this fraction were higher in PT than NT, suggesting a faster turnover in PT. Nevertheless, because most C (95%) was held in the HF, C dynamics in the whole soil were controlled by the behavior of this fraction. The maintenance of C levels even at the end of 30 years of cultivation and the lack of differentiation between NT and PT were attributed to the high clay contents and Fe+Al oxi-hydroxides concentrations of the studied soil as well as to a sufficient C supply by the maize crop.     

Critical drainage and nitrate leaching losses from manures applied to freely draining soils in Great Britain

Abstract. Pig slurry was applied by open-slot injection to experimental plots on a sandy loam site at ADAS Gleadthorpe, Nottinghamshire. Volume and distribution of over-winter drainage were adjusted through the use of rainfall exclusion covers or irrigation. The resultant slurry N leaching over the range of drainage values tested (up to 300 mm) could be satisfactorily described by curve-fitting, using a quadratic or exponential function. Initial simulations of slurry N leaching using the manure nitrogen decision support system manner (v. 3.0) compared poorly with the experimental data, predicting both earlier and greater amounts of nitrate leaching. However, the lack of fit could be explained by consideration of the likely ammonia emissions following slurry injection, the actual volumetric soil moisture capacity at the experimental site and the likely time delay for the nitrification of slurry N following application. Good agreement between modelled and observed data was achieved when these factors were taken into account. The manner model was used to simulate nitrate leaching beyond the range of drainage treatments tested in the experiments and the anticipated sigmoidal relationship between nitrate leaching and drainage was observed. The model was then used to study the effects of manure application timing and the likely impact on nitrate leaching, across the range of rainfall conditions found in Great Britain. Simulations for a range of manure types were undertaken, with manures applied at rates up to the limit of permitted N loading on freely draining sandy loams. Rainfall inputs for these simulations were based on long-term average climatic data. Results are presented for two contrasting manure types, cattle slurry and poultry manure, both of which are subject to controls in Nitrate Vulnerable Zones (NVZs) in Great Britain.