Relationship between increased albendazole systemic exposure and changes in single nucleotide polymorphisms on the β-tubulin isotype 1 encoding gene in Haemonchus contortus

Resistance to benzimidazole anthelmintics in the nematode Haemonchus contortus has been correlated with single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) on the β-tubulin isotype 1 gene. Three mutations can be used as markers for the detection of resistance, namely SNPs at position 200 and 167 (both TTC to TAC) or at position 198 (GAA to GCA). Harbouring a resistance genotype at any one of these codons can lead to a resistant phenotype. Our objective in this study was to analyse the frequencies of the three mutations when the albendazole dose rate and selection pressure were increased. We used adult H. contortus (males and females) collected directly from the abomasum of untreated lambs, or lambs treated with the manufacturer's recommended dose rate (5mg/kg), three times the recommended dose rate (15 mg/kg), or nine times the recommended dose rate (45 mg/kg). Anthelmintic efficacy was determined by worm and egg count reductions. For the surviving worms of the four treatment groups, the frequencies of each resistance SNP at codons 167, 200 and 198 were measured using pyrosequencing. Our results showed a strong relationship between an increasing dose rate and an increase in the frequency of the (TAC)(200) SNP and a decrease in the (TAC)(167) SNP. All worms genotyped were GAA at codon 198.     

Development of two telemetry-based systems for monitoring the feeding behaviour of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) in aquaculture sea-cages

Two novel acoustic transmitter tags intended to reflect feeding behaviours in farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) were developed and tested in this study. Using information from the literature and video recordings of feeding salmon, measurements of swimming depth and motion (acceleration) were identified as two promising sensing principles on which to base the tag development. Video footage and laboratory studies were used to develop corresponding algorithms that translated depth and acceleration measurements into compound parameters reflecting the different aspects that discern feeding activity from other activities. Field tests performed in a sea-farm were used to verify the functionality of the tags, and indicated that both tag types had potential in distinguishing between feeding and non-feeding behaviour. Additionally, both depth- and acceleration-based tags were seen to have applications to fish monitoring and farm management beyond that of observing feeding in salmon, in giving recordings of the vertical swimming behaviour of fish over extended periods of time as well as indications of the activity changes of fish due to external influences. These results suggest that fish telemetry using sensor-based transmitter tags could represent a useful tool in future fish farm management.     

Feed preferences in juvenile cod estimated by inert lanthanid markers – effects of moisture content in the feed

There are indications that low ingestion ratesof formulated feed may limit the growth ofearly juvenile fish, including cod. This hasparticularly been observed during the weaningperiod, when the fish must change from apresumably palatable live prey to usually a drydiet. The study of the physical properties ofthe diet seems to be an underestimated area ofresearch, compared to studies on thenutritional properties of the diet. In thisstudy we used lanthanide markers as a tool inestimating diet preferences for examining theeffect of dietary moisture content on ingestionrates in juvenile cod (0.8 g). Fishmeal-baseddiets were produced with five levels of water,giving diets with 35, 42, 54, 65 or 95% dryweight. Each diet was marked with a smallamount of a lanthanide or yttrium oxide. Thefish were hand fed on a mixture of these fivediets. Ingestion rates where then estimated bykilling 1/2 of the fish after one day and therest after four days of feeding. The whole fishwith gut content was homogenized and markercontent was measured by ICP-MS. The amountingested of each of the five diets could thenbe calculated from these figures. Despite thehigh variation in diet selection betweenindividuals the results clearly indicate ahigher intake of moist feed. This could becaused by a better palatability or to a higheravailability caused by a lower sinking rate ofthe moist feed.     

Spatial niche variability for young Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and brown trout (S. trutta) in heterogeneous streams

Abstract– Habitat is important in determining stream carrying capacity and population density in young Atlantic salmon and brown trout. We review stream habitat selection studies and relate results to variable and interacting abiotic and biotic factors. The importance of spatial and temporal scales are often overlooked. Different physical variables may influence fish position choice at different spatial scales. Temporally variable water flows and temperatures are pervasive environmental factors in streams that affect behavior and habitat selection. The more frequently measured abiotic variables are water depth, water velocity (or stream gradient), substrate particle size, and cover. Summer daytime, feeding habitats of Atlantic salmon are size structured. Larger parr (>7 cm) have a wider spatial niche than small parr. Selected snout water velocities are consistently low (3–25 cm. s^?1). Mean (or surface) water velocities are in the preferred range of 30–50 cm. s^?1, and usually in combination with coarse substratum (16–256 mm). However, salmon parr demonstrate flexibility with respect to preferred water velocity, depending on fish size, intra- and interspecific competition, and predation risk. Water depth is less important, except in small streams. In large rivers and lakes a variety of water depths are used by salmon parr. Summer daytime, feeding habitat of brown trout is also characterized by a narrow selection of low snout water velocities. Habitat use is size-structured, which appears to be mainly a result of intraspecific competition. The small trout parr (<7 cm) are abundant in the shallow swift stream areas (<20–30 cm depths, 10–50 cm. s^?1 water velocities) with cobble substrates. The larger trout have increasingly strong preferences for deep-slow stream areas, in particular pools. Water depth is considered the most important habitat variable for brown trout. Spatial niche overlap is considerable where the two species are sympatric, although young Atlantic salmon tend to be distributed more in the faster flowing and shallow habitats compared with trout. Habitat use by salmon is restricted through interspecific competition with the more aggressive brown trout (interactive segregation). However, subtle innate differences in behavior at an early stage also indicate selective segregation. Seasonal changes in habitat use related to water temperatures occur in both species. In winter, they have a stronger preference for cover and shelter, and may seek shelter in the streambed and/or deeper water. At low temperatures (higher latitudes), there are also marked shifts in habitat use during day and night as the fish become nocturnal. Passive sheltering in the substrate or aggregating in deep-slow stream areas is the typical daytime behavior. While active at night, the fish move to more exposed holding positions primarily on but also above the substrate. Diurnal changes in habitat use take place also in summer; brown trout may utilize a wider spatial niche at night with more fish occupying the shallow-slow stream areas. Brown trout and young Atlantic salmon also exhibit a flexible response to variability in streamflows, wherein habitat selection may change considerably. Important topics in need of further research include: influence of spatial measurement scale, effects of temporal and spatial variability in habitat conditions on habitat selection, effects of interactive competition and trophic interactions (predation risk) on habitat selection, influence of extreme natural events on habitat selection use or suitability (floods, ice formation and jams, droughts), and individual variation in habitat use or behavior.     

Production of meiotic gynogenetic and triploid sea bass, Dicentrarchus labrax L.: 1. Performances, maturation and carcass quality

Meiotic gynogenetic and triploid sea bass were produced by pressure shocks according to a previously published protocol. Pressure-treated groups did not survive as well as controls during early development and larval rearing. Performances, sexual maturation and carcass quality were examined over a period of 34–45 months. At the age of 34 months, growth of the gynogenetic fish was comparable to that of the control but inferior in the triploid fish. A predominance of male fish was found within the triploid groups, while diploid and meiotic gynogenetic fish showed equal proportions of the sexes. Gonadal maturation in triploid fish was significantly impaired, particularly in the females that showed rudimentary ovaries. Triploid males exhibited primary maturation but proved to be gametically sterile. Pressure-induced triploids did not grow as well as diploids, but these results might be ascribed to specific on-growing conditions (communal rearing). The performance of gynogenetic sea bass was comparable to that of control. The superiority of diploid fish over their triploid counterparts was confirmed during the final growing period and more clearly so in females. Performances of triploids varied according to their maternal origin. Overall, striking qualitative differences between diploid and triploid fish were found at the age of 34 and 45 months, although the results varied in a gender-specific manner. A strong maternal effect was also observed. The potential advantages of triploid sea bass for aquaculture purposes are discussed.     

Quality of raw and smoked fillets from clinically healthy Atlantic salmon,Salmo salar L., following an outbreak of pancreas disease (PD)

Pancreas disease (PD) is a viral disease of farmed salmonid fish, which causes huge economic losses. Pathological changes in skeletal muscle, pancreas and heart are hallmarks of PD. Stakeholders in the fish‐smoking industry have claimed that fillets from PD‐affected Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., are of poor quality. We therefore examined harvest‐ready, clinically healthy Atlantic salmon from a population of fish previously affected by PD. Histopathological changes in skeletal muscle tissues ranged from minor to severe. Fillet quality measurements showed that fish with severe skeletal muscle changes provided a paler raw fillet and a yellowish and harder cold‐smoked fillet than normal. PD had no significant effect on fillet gaping, bacteriological quality or off‐odour development during storage. An unexpected finding was a significant subendocardial fibrosis in 23% of the PD‐affected fish. The latter may indicate susceptibility to stress‐related heart failure.     

Field evaluation of sweet corn varieties for their potential as a trap crop for Helicoverpa zea under tropical conditions

Corn (Zea mays) is widely cultivated for human food and animal feed and also provides an ecosystem service as a trap crop for the corn earworm Helicoverpa zea (Boddie) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in tomato cropping systems. To be able to use corn as a trap crop for H. zea and to prevent it turning into a source of infestation, varieties are needed that are both attractive and resistant to H. zea. The main objective of this study was to compare the attractiveness to oviposition by H. zea and the resistance to H. zea of 10 sweet corn varieties in field conditions. We found Java, Garrison, Nova and Shinerock varieties that were both attractive to H. zea with a similar or higher number of eggs laid on silks than in the susceptible corn varieties, and resistant to H. zea, with fewer larvea per ear than in susceptible corn varieties. These varieties provide favorable habitats for generalist predators, ants, spiders, minute pirate bugs and lady beetles, which may account for their “dead-end” properties. Tropical farmers now have sweet corn varieties that can serve both as cash crops and as trap crops for H. zea.