Identification of Minimum Data Set Under Balanced Fertilization for Sustainable Rice Production and Maintaining Soil Quality in Alluvial Soils of Eastern India

The scarcity of non-renewable fertilizers resources and the consequences of climate change can dramatically influence the food security of future generation. Introduction of high yielding varieties, intensive cropping sequence and increasing demand of food grains day-by-day, application of recommended dose of fertilizers could not fulfill our targets due to outdated fertilizers recommendations are yet in practice. It not only alters soil quality, nutrient balance, microbial and enzymatic ecology but also affected productivity and sustainability of rice in Gangetic alluvial soils of India. The effect of fertilizers application based on “fertilizing the soil versus fertilizing the crop” which insure real balance between the applied and available soil nutrient is urgently needed. Hence, the present study was conducted during three consecutive crop seasons (2010, 2011, and 2012) to assess the effect of imbalance and balance fertilization based on initial soil test values and targeted yields, and to determine the effect of farmyard manure (FYM) when superimposed with balanced fertilizers on identification of minimum data set for the development soil quality, nutrient acquisition, and grain yield of rice. The six fertilizer treatments were laid out in a randomized block design with three replications. The treatments were: T₁-control (no fertilization), T₂-farmyard manure @ 5 t ha^?1, T₃-farmers practice (60:30:30 kg N:P₂O₅:K₂O ha^?1), T₄-precise application of mineral fertilizers based on initial soil test values (77:24:46 kg N:P₂O₅:K₂O ha^?1) for targeted grain yield of 4.0 t ha^?1, T₅-precise application of mineral fertilizers based on initial soil test values (74:23:43 kg N:P₂O₅:K₂O ha^?1) plus FYM (5 t ha^?1) for targeted grain yield of 4.0 t ha^?1 and T₆-precise application of mineral fertilizers based on initial soil test values (135:34:65 kg N:P₂O₅:K₂O ha^?1) for targeted rice grain yield of 5.0 t ha^?1. Result revealed that the targeted rice grain yield of 4.0 and 5.0 t ha^?1 was achieved in T₄ and T₆ treatments with 1.59% (4.06 t ha^?1) and –3.40% (4.83 t ha^?1) deviations, respectively. T₄, T_5, and T₆ significantly increased crop growth, nutrient uptake, available P (P_a) and K (K_a) and augmented rice grain yield by 10.6, 20.2 and 31.6%, respectively, over T₃. Microbial biomass carbon, soil respiration and enzymatic activity were enhanced significantly in T₅ as compared to T₆. Highest soil quality index was found in T₅ (0.95) followed by T₆ (0.90) and, lowest was in T₁ (0.63). The contribution of minimum data set (MDS) toward the SQI was in the descending order of ALP (30.6%) > SOC (21.5%) > K_a (11.3%) > PSM (9.68%) > N_a (8.51%). Overall, rice yield and soil quality was improved by using balance fertilization based on fertilizing the crop Vs fertilizing the soil in alluvial soils of India.     

Biochar has little effect on soil dissolved organic carbon pool 5 years after biochar application under field condition

Biochar application can improve soil properties, such as increasing soil organic carbon content, soil pH and water content. These properties are important to soil dissolved organic carbon (DOC); however, the effects of biochar on DOC concentration and composition have received little research attention, especially several years after biochar application under field conditions. This study was conducted in a long‐term experimental field where the biochar was only applied once in 2009. The purpose of the study was to investigate the effect of different biochar application rates (0, 30, 60 and 90 t ha^?1) on the dynamics of soil water content, DOC concentration and DOC compositions (reducing sugar, soluble phenol and aromatics) over nine samplings during a 12‐month period in 2014. Our results showed that soil water content and DOC concentration varied from 7.1% to 14.5% and 59 to 230 mg C kg^?1 soil during the 12 months, respectively. However, the biochar application rates did not significantly (p > 0.05) affect soil water content, DOC concentration and DOC composition at the same sampling period. The DOC concentration across the biochar treatments was positively correlated to soil water content. Moreover, the DOC composition (reducing sugar, soluble phenol or aromatics) and their concentrations were positively correlated to the total DOC concentration. In addition, biochar did not affect soil bulk density, pH, saturated hydraulic conductivity and crop yields. The results indicated that some benefits of biochar to soil may not persist 5 years after the application of biochar under a field condition.     

Seasonal dynamics of mineral N pools and N-mineralization in soils under homegarden trees in South Andaman,India

Agroforestry trees are now well known to play a central role in the build up of nutrients pools and their transformations similar to that of forest ecosystem, however, information on the potential of homegarden trees accumulating and releasing nitrogen (mineralization) is lacking. The present study reports seasonal variations in pool sizes of mineral N (NH₄⁺-N and NO₃⁻-N), and net N-mineralization rate in relation to rainfall and temperature under coconut (Cocos nucifera L.), clove (Eugenia caryophyllata Thunb) and nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt. Nees) trees in a coconut-spice trees plantation for two annual cycles in the equatorial humid climate of South Andaman Island of India. Concentration of NH₄⁺-N was the highest during wet season (May–October) and the lowest during post-wet season (November–January) under all the tree species. On the contrary, concentration of NO₃⁻-N was the lowest in the wet season and the highest during the post-wet season. However, concentrations of the mineral N were the highest under the nutmeg and the lowest under the coconut trees. Like the pool sizes, mean annual mineralization was the highest under the nutmeg (561 mg kg⁻¹ yr⁻¹) and the lowest under the coconut trees (393 mg kg⁻¹ yr⁻¹). Rate of mineralization was the highest during the post-wet season and the lowest during the dry season (February–April) under all the tree species. High rainfall during the wet season, however, reduced the rate of nitrification under all the tree species. The mean annual mineralization was logarithmically related with rainfall amount and mean monthly temperature.     

Molecular phylogeny and pathotyping of Fusarium solani: a causal agent of Dalbergia sissoo decline

Sissoo (Dalbergia sissoo), commonly known as shisham, is amongst the finest woods of South Asia, but ‘wilt’ disease has caused a rapid decline in this species. The cause of the disease remains uncertain. The aim of this study is to identify the causal agent of the disease and characterize isolates made from diseased trees, based on genomic data and variations in virulence. Samples of infected roots, stems and the ooze exuded from infected trees were obtained from plants showing symptoms in different geographical regions of India for the isolation of microorganisms. Isolates were used to inoculate healthy plants. Based on the morphological characteristics, genus‐ and species‐specific PCR, and in silico analysis of 5.8S rDNA‐ITS regions, of the 38 fungal isolates, 24 and 14 were identified as Fusarium solani and Fusarium sp., respectively. In a pathotyping study, eighteen F. solani isolates, isolated from roots and stem parts of symptomatic plants, induced typical wilt symptoms when inoculated through soil and roots on D. sissoo seedlings of 1–15 months in age. The population of F. solani was the highest in infected roots and the lowest in parts of stems, gradually decreasing with height, and was isolated constantly up to approximately 40% height of the seedling. F. solani isolates used in inoculations were successfully re‐isolated from the rhizosphere, infected roots and wilted stems, as confirmed using isolate‐specific DNA fingerprints. Molecular phylogenies based on rDNA‐ITS sequences showed that the 38 isolates fell into 2 groups. Group I comprised of F. solani isolates from D. sissoo and F. solani sequences in the NCBI GenBank database, whereas group II included Fusarium isolates other than F. solani. These results are helpful in developing integrated control measures for this highly variable pathogen and to establish a base for future population studies.     

Phosphorus Enhanced Establishment,Growth, Nutrient Uptake,and Productivity of Dalbergia sissoo Seedlings Maintained at Varying Soil Water Stress Levels in an Indian Arid Zone

We assessed interactive effects of varying levels of applied phosphorus fertilizer and water stress on growth, productivity, and mineral accumulation in container-grown Dalbergia sissoo L. seedlings. Height, collar diameter, leaf size and area, root volume and total biomass were reduced, and dry matter allocation to root was increased with increasing levels of soil water stress. The reduction was >32% in growth, >50% in leaf, and >77% in biomass when seedlings were grown with <50% of soil field capacity. Phosphorus application at the level of 10 mg kg^?1 soil enhanced stems and leaf biomass and nutrient accumulation at all irrigation levels, and thus tolerance to drought. Phosphorus responses to growth and biomass production increased with irrigation levels. Thus, 20 mg P kg^?1 soil is beneficial at sufficient soil water availability and a lower dose (i.e., 10 mg P kg^?1) is recommended under high soil water stress conditions to benefit growth and productivity of D. sissoo.     

Adventitious rhizogenesis in Bambusa nutans and Bambusa tulda: Influence of seasonal variation, IBA and cutting type

The influence of seasonal variation, indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) and type of cuttings was examined on induction and growth of adventitious roots in Bambusa nutans Wall. and Bambusa tulda Roxb. Singlenode culm and culm-branch cuttings from the mature culms were provided with immersion treatment for 24 h of either water (control) or 2 mM IBA in four different seasons, i.e., spring (mid February), summer (mid May), rainy (mid July), and winter (mid November) and maintained for two months in the mist chamber at the relative humidity of (70±5)% and the temperature of (30±2)°C. In B. nutans, adventitious rooting occurred in both types of cuttings in all the seasons with the best rooting in the summer season i.e., May (88% in culm cuttings) and the least in winter. On the contrary, adventitious rooting was recorded only in culm cuttings in spring and summer season in B. tulda. IBA treatment significantly enhanced rooting, root number and root length; registering 14 to 17 times improvement over control in the best rooting season. Three factor-interactions (season × cutting type × IBA treatment) were significant for rooting in B. nutans and all characteristics, except sprouting in B. tulda. Thus, single-node culm and culm-branch cuttings in B. nutans and culm cuttings in B. tulda treated with 2 mM IBA during spring (February) to summer (May) season are recommended for their clonal multiplication.     

Petroleum flotation technique upgrades the germinability of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Casuarina equisetifolia</Emphasis> seed lots

The germination of Casuarina equisetifolia Forst seed lots is low (40–50%) even when freshly collected. This study aimed at upgrading the germination performance by removing non-germinable seeds using petroleum flotation technique. Seeds collected from 19 individual trees in seedling seed orchards in India were assessed using X-ray to determine the proportion of different seed lot fractions. The feasibility of petroleum ether as a separation medium was tested. Morphological characters of floating and sunken seeds were further studied using image analysis technique to examine their effects on the separation efficiency. The X-ray analysis revealed a large quantity of shrivelled, empty and insect-damaged seeds, altogether accounting 50%, which were the causes of low percentage germination of un-graded seed lots (48%). Petroleum flotation resulted in 90% germination in the sunken fraction and 4% in the floating fraction. The separation was distinct for most seed lots, except few seed lots that had relatively low germination in the sunken fractions and more than 10% germination in the floating fractions. As a whole, petroleum flotation appears to be a feasible technique to upgrade the germination of C. equisetifolia seed lots, and its efficacy is influenced by wing surface area, seed density and wing quotient of filled and empty seeds.     

Water use and carbon exchange of red oak- and eastern hemlock-dominated forests in the northeastern USA: implications for ecosystem-level effects of hemlock woolly adelgid

Water use and carbon exchange of a red oak-dominated (Quercus rubra L.) forest and an eastern hemlock-dominated (Tsuga canadensis L.) forest, each located within the Harvard Forest in north-central Massachusetts, were measured for 2 years by the eddy flux method. Water use by the red oak forest reached 4 mm day(-1), compared to a maximum of 2 mm day(-1) by the eastern hemlock forest. Maximal carbon (C) uptake rate was also higher in the red oak forest than in the eastern hemlock forest (about 25 versus 15 micromol m(-2) s(-1)). Sap flux measurements indicated that transpiration of red oak, and also of black birch (Betula lenta L.), which frequently replaces eastern hemlock killed by hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae Annand.), were almost twice that of eastern hemlock. Despite the difference between species in maximum summertime C assimilation rate, annual C storage of the eastern hemlock forest almost equaled that of the red oak forest because of net C uptake by eastern hemlock during unusually warm fall and spring weather, and a near-zero C balance during the winter. Thus, the effect on C storage of replacing eastern hemlock forest with a forest dominated by deciduous species is unclear. Carbon storage by eastern hemlock forests during fall, winter and spring is likely to increase in the event of climate warming, although this may be offset by C loss during hotter summers. Our results indicate that, although forest water use will decrease immediately following eastern hemlock mortality due to the hemlock woolly adelgid, the replacement of eastern hemlock by deciduous species such as red oak will likely increase summertime water use over current rates in areas where hemlock is a major forest species.     

Genes conferring low seedling reaction to Mexican pathotypes of Puccinia recondita f. sp. tritici,and adult-plant responses of recent wheat cultivars from the former USSR

Fifty-five spring bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cultivars, mostly released between 1975 and 1991 in eight leaf rust-prone spring wheat growing regions of the former USSR, were tested in the seedling growth stage for reaction to 15 Mexican pathotypes of Puccinia recondita f. sp. tritici. In total, seven known and at least two unknown genes were identified, either singly or in combinations: Lr3 (7 cultivars), Lr10 (14), Lr13 (5), Lr14a (1), Lr16 (1), Lr23 (3); the unknown genes were identified in 14 cultivars. The first unknown gene could be either Lr9, Lr19, or Lr25; however, the second unknown gene in 9 cultivars was different from any named gene. Twelve of the 15 pathotypes are virulent for this gene, hence its use in breeding for resistance will be limited. The cultivars were also evaluated at two field locations in Mexico with two pathotypes in separate experiments. The area under the disease progress curve and the final disease rating of the cultivars indicated genetic diversity for genes conferring adult plant resistance. based on the symptoms of the leaf tip necrosis in adult plants, resistance gene Lr34 could be present in at least 20 cultivars. More than half of the cultivars carry high to moderate levels of adult plant resistance and were distributed in each region.     

Geographical distribution of the DL1 and DL2 genes causing hybrid dwarfism in Phaseolus vulgaris L., their association with seed size,and their significance to breeding

Summary Dwarlism in F₁ hybrids has been observed in over 100 crosses of dry beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) at the Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), Cali, Colombia. In each cross, one parent always had small seeds and the other parent either medium or la ge ones. This apparent incompatibility between the two groups of germplasm was controlled by two complementary, dominant genes: DL₁ and DL₂. Smallseeded bean lines carried gene DL₁ and originated in Brazil, Colombia, Guatemala, and Mexico; medium for large-seeded bean lines carried gene DL₂ and were from Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Turkey, The United States, and West Germany. Thes two genes have probably played an important role in the evolution of dry bean forms of different seed sizes by serving as a genetic barrier or isolating mechanism, thus limiting free genetic recombination between the two germplasm groups.Apparent differences in the adaptiveness and yielding ability of the two groups of bean germplasm, smallys, medium- and large-seeded, and some breeding implications for manipulation of the genes causing F₁ hybrid dwarfism were also discovered.