Factors Affecting the Release of Ascospores of Anisogramma anomala

ABSTRACT Relationships between environmental factors and release of ascospores of Anisogramma anomala, the causal agent of eastern filbert blight, were examined in four European hazelnut (Corylus avellana) orchards during a 2-year period. In each orchard, Burkhard volumetric spore traps and automated weather-monitoring equipment were deployed for 12-week periods beginning at budbreak, when hazelnut becomes susceptible to infection. Ascospores of A. anomala were released when stromata on the surface of hazelnut branches were wet from rain but not from dew. Release of ascospores ceased after branch surfaces dried. The duration of free moisture on branch surfaces regulated the initiation and rate of ascospore release, but no significant effects of temperature, relative humidity, wind, or light on ascospore release were apparent. Most (>90%) ascospores were captured during precipitation events that exceeded 20 h in duration, which represented about 10% of the total precipitation events each season. Quantitative relationships between the hourly capture of A. anomala ascospores and hours since the beginning of a precipitation event were developed. With the onset of precipitation, the hourly rate of ascospore capture increased until the fifth hour of rain, remained relatively constant between the fifth and twelfth hours, and then declined gradually. During the 12-week spore-trapping periods, the likelihood and rates of ascospore release associated with precipitation were highest at budbreak and then declined through April and May until early June, when the reserve of ascospores in the perithecia was depleted. Large numbers of ascospores were captured in the volumetric spore traps, indicating that ascospores may be commonly dispersed long distances on air currents as well as locally by splash dispersal within the canopy, as reported previously. The results indicate that monitoring seasonal precipitation patterns may be useful for estimating the quantity and temporal distribution of airborne inoculum during the period that the host is susceptible to infection.     

Temperature-dependent development rates of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Bracon vulgaris,</Emphasis> a parasitoid of boll weevil

The duration of development of Bracon vulgaris Ashmead, parasitoid of the boll weevil Anthonomus grandis Boheman, was determined at nine constant temperatures between 18°C and 38°C. Nonlinear regression analysis was used to test the fit of temperature-dependent development rates to the Sharpe and DeMichele and Lactin et al. models. At the highest tested temperature (38°C) all the parasitoid eggs died before hatching and no evidence of development was observed. The high values of R ² for the models of Sharpe and DeMichele (0.8432 to 0.9834), and Lactin et al. (0.9071 to 0.9795) indicated that these models are suitable to estimate the development rate of B. vulgaris as a function of temperature. B. vulgaris showed tolerance to high temperature which is represented by the high value of H _H (change in enthalpy associated with high-temperature inactivation of the enzyme) for the prepupa stage of this insect obtained with the Sharpe and DeMichele model. According to that model, B. vulgaris exhibits thermal stress at 35.7°C, which indicates that maximum thermal stress estimated by this model was close to the real one.     

Changing rainfall patterns and farmers’ adaptation through soil water management practices in semi-arid eastern Kenya

There is limited documentation of soil and water management technologies that enhance adaptation to climate change in drylands of Kenya. Rainfall patterns were analyzed in the semi-arid Machakos and Makueni counties of eastern Kenya using historical data. A total of forty-three smallholder farmers implementing soil water management practices were sampled, and an estimate of the seasonal water budget for current crop and livestock production systems computed. Analysis of rainfall amounts and distribution shows increasing variability, with the average annual total amounts decreasing over the past 50 years. Furthermore, the number of rainy days within the March-April-May season that can support crop growth is gradually decreasing. These decreases are however not significant at P < 0.05. There were more seasons with low rainfall amounts compared to those with high rainfall amounts. All these subject the smallholder crop and livestock production system to limited soil moisture. Farmers address the risk by harnessing and utilizing green (rainfall stored in soil) and blue (rainfall collected into storage tanks) water technologies. The study found that farmers in these semi-arid counties practice fifteen diverse soil and water management interventions on their farms. The most popular practices are cut-off drains, retention ditches, terracing, run-off harvesting, and agroforestry. The estimated seasonal water budget indicates the need for integrated soil and water management interventions to address the crop and livestock production constraints.     

Laboratory evaluation of the insect growth regulator lufenuron againstHelicoverpa armigera on cotton

An insect growth regulator (IGR), lufenuron (Match 5EC), was tested for its toxicity toHelicoverpa armigera on cotton. Potency of the IGR against the larval stage of the pest was demonstrated with respect to larval instars; the LC₉₀ values of 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th instar larvae were 5.63, 7.89, 8.03, 11.39 and 14.76 mg a.i.l ⁻¹, respectively. However, different larval instars did not differ significantly with respect to LC₅₀ and LC₁₀. IGR-treated larvae had swollen heads and were significantly smaller (1.5–2.3 mm) than the untreated control (2.9 mm). Larval weight was significantly reduced from 190 mg in the control to 50–70 mg in the lufenuron treatment. IGR treatment in the larval stage significantly affected both pupal length and pupal weight. Pupal duration of the test insect was significantly extended by IGR treatment. Pupal deformities, including an inability to shed the last larval skin and formation of larval-pupal intermediates, occurred following treatment. A significant reduction in adult emergence was recorded. In addition, abnormalities in the form of development of cavities in the forewings of adult were evident. A significant decline in fecundity was noted in the studies. http://www.phytoparasitica.org posting Feb. 3, 2003.     

Root growth and the relative importance of root and shoot competition in interactions between rice (Oryza sativa) and Echinochloa crus-galli

Competition between rice (Oryza sativa) and Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) Beauv. (barnyard-grass or cockspur) was studied experimentally in the field in Sri Lanka. By growing rice in bags sunk in the paddy soil such.that the roots of the plants were either separated from or free to mingle with those of neighbouring weeds, or by growing rice in the same bags but in the absence of weeds, it was possible to calculate the relative importance of interference below ground (root competition) and above ground (shoot competition). Three rice varieties with different above-ground morphology were inhibited to different extents by E. crus-galli but in each case root competition was more important than shoot competition. In the variety that was most sensitive to root competition, Bg 400–1, inhibition of total growth due to root competition increased with increasing weed density. When grown in monocultures in pots in the field, the two species exhibited similar growth rates whether or not the soil was fertilized, but in 1:1 mixtures growth of E. crus-galli was greater, particularly if fertilizer was added, as this promoted the growth of the weed, while having no effect on the rice. In mixture, relative yield totals were close to 1.0, with the relative yield of E. crus-galli being consistently greater than 0.5, particularly with added nutrients, while the relative yield of rice was always less than 0.5. The relative crowding coefficient for rice with respect to E. crus-galli (K_eb), when based on total plant dry weight, was lower in fertilized than in non-fertilized soil, falling in the former case from 0.4 to 0.2 during the experiments Kroot_rb, based on root dry weight, decreased with increasing soil depth and was lower in fertilized than in non-fertilized soil, most notably after 62 days of growth, when root dry weight was at its maximum. It is concluded that inhibition of root growth of rice, leading to a reduced ability to obtain resources from the soil, was the major factor contributing to the decline in the growth of rice in the presence of E. crus-galli. Croissance racinaire et importance relative de la compétition racinaire et aérienne dans les interactions entre le riz (Oryza sativa) et le panic (Echinochloa crus-galli) La competition entre le riz (Oryza sativa) et le panic (Echinochloa crus-galli) a étéétudiée dans une expérimentation de plein champ au Sri Lanka. En cultivant du riz dans des sachets immergés dans la riziére de telle façon que ses racines soient soil séparées, soil libres de se mé1anger avec celles des adventices voisines, ou en cultivant du riz dans des sachets analogues mais en 1'absence de mauvaises herbes, il est possible de calculer 1'importance relative de 1'interférence sous le sol (compétition racinaire) et de celle au dessus du sol (compétitionaérienne). 3 variétés de riz ayant une morphologie aérienne différente ont été inhibées par le panic à des niveaux différents mais chaque fois la compétition racinaire a été plus importante que l'aérienne. Chez la variété la plus sensible à la compétition racinaire, Bg 400–1, le ralentissement de la croissance totale due à la compétition racinaire augmenta avec l'augmentation de la densité de mauvaises herbes. Quand elles sont cultivées en pots dans les champs, les deux espèces ont des taux de croissance similaires que le sol soit ou non fertilisé, mais dans un mélange 1/1 la croissance du panic est plus forte surtout si l'on ajoute de l'engrais puisque celui-ci favorise la croissance de l'adventice sans avoir d'effet sur le riz. En mélange, le total des poids relatifs était très proche de 1, avec un poids relatif de panic conséquemment plus grand que 0,5, surtout dans le cas d'adjonction d'engrais, tandis que celui du riz était toujours inférieur à 0,5. Le coefficient de tassement relatif du riz en regard du panic (K_rb), basé sur le poids sec de la plante entière était plus faible dans les sols fertilisés que dans les autres, tombant de 0,4 à 0,2 pendant l'expérimentation. KracinC_rb, basé sur le poids sec de racine, diminue avec l'augmentation de la profondeur du sol et est plus bas dans les sols fertilisés que dans les autres, surtout après 62 jours de croissance quand le poids sec de racine est à son maximum. Il est conclu que le ralentissement de la croissance des racines de riz, aboutissant à une capacité moindre à prélever les ressources du sol, était le facteur principale de la réduction de la croissance du riz en présence de panic. Wurzelwachstum von und Wurzel- sowie Sproßkonkurrenz zwischen Reis (Oryza sativaj und Echinochloa crus-galli In Freilandversuchen in Sri Lanka zur Wurzelund Sproßkonkurrenz zwischen Reis (Oryza sativa L.) und Hühnerhirse (Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) Beauv.) wurde Reis so in Beuteln gepflanzt, daß seine Wurzeln sich entweder getrennt oder mit denen des Unkrauts zusammen wachsend entwickeln konnten. Andere Parzellen blieben unkrautfrei. E. crus-galli konkurrierte mit 3 Reissorten von unterschiedlicher Sproßmorphologie verschieden stark, doch die Wurzelkonkurrenz war immer bedeutender als die Sproßkonkurrenz. Bei der gegen Wurzelkonkurrenz empfindlichsten Sorte “Bg 400–1” war die Gesamthemmung auf die mit der Unkrautdichte zunehmende Wurzelkonkurrenz zurückzuführen. In Monokultur hatten beide Arten unabhängig von der Düngung ähnliche Wachstumsraten, aber in l:l-Mischkulturwuchs E. crus-galli stärker, besonders bei Düngung, die auf den Reis wirkungslos blieb. In Mischkultur lag der relative Gesamtertrag nahe 1,0, wobei der Ertrag von E. crus-galli stets über 0,5, der des Reises jedoch immer unter 0,5 lag. Für die Wechselbeziehung zwischen Reis und E. crus-galli auf die Gesamttrockenmasse wurde ein ‘crowding coefficient’ (K_rb) für Reis berechnet, der mit Düngung kleiner war als ohne. K_rb nahm während des Versuchs von 0,4 auf 0,2 ab. Der auf die Wurzeltrockenmasse bezogene ‘crowding coefficient’ (Kroot_rb) nahm mit zunehmender Bodentiefe ab. Kroot_rb war niedriger in gedüngtem verglichen mit ungedüngtem Boden. Dieser Unterschied war nach 62 Tagen Wachstum besonders deutlich, als die Wurzeltrockenmasse ein Maximum erreichte. Die Hemmung des Wurzelwachstums des Reises wurde als wichtiger Faktor für seine Wachtum-shemmung in der Gegenwart von E. crus-galli angesehen, weil sie die Fähigkeit des Reises zur Nährstoffaufnahme aus dem Boden verringert.     

Antimicrobial activity of some N-(arylalkyl)maleimides

A series of N-(arylalkyl)maleimides was prepared for the reaction of maleic anhydride and N-(arylalkyl) amines, and their antimicrobial activities were examined. All compounds exhibited antibacterial activity against gram-positive bacteria such as Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus. Almost all compounds exhibited antibacterial activity against the gram-negative bacterium, Escherichia coli, but were inactive against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Activities against gram-positive bacteria were independent of the nature of the substituent on the benzene ring or the length of alkyl group, but that against gram-negative bacteria was influenced by these parameters. All N-(arylalkyl)maleimides showed activity against yeasts and mycelial fungi.     

A reconsideration of natural dispersal distances of the pine pathogen Dothistroma septosporum

The natural spread of Dothistroma septosporum, the causal agent of a foliar disease of pines, was investigated at three sites in the south of England using trap plants. The pathogen is considered to be primarily rain‐splash dispersed, but this study shows that it can be spread many hundreds of metres from an inoculum source, demonstrating that dispersal is not solely via rain splash. The maximum distance the pathogen was recorded from any infection source was in excess of 1400 m, over five times the distance defined in the only previous work of this kind. Consequently, a reassessment of forest and production nursery management practices is called for, as these assume that the pathogen only spreads naturally over limited distances. Detection of the pathogen on trap plants over 100 m from the inoculum source was, in most cases, only possible using quantitative real‐time PCR diagnosis. The entire diagnostic procedure, from DNA extraction to amplification, was able to detect a minimum of approximately 17 D. septosporum cells in a pine needle sample, assuming only a moderate DNA extraction efficiency of 30%.     

Collar rot caused byPhytophthora citrophthora on pear trees in Greece

A severe crown rot of pear trees of cultivar ‘Kondoula’ grafted on quince rootstock was observed in Greece. Isolations from the affected tissues repeatadly yielded aPhytophthora sp. that was determined by morphological and physiological characteristics to beP. citrophthora. The pathogenicity of two of theP. citrophthora isolates was tested by inoculating trunks of 2-year-old pear trees by mycelial agar disks. Thirty-two days after inoculation all inoculated trees were infected. Although the pear isolates could not be differentiated from isolates ofP. palmivora orP. nicotianae based on isozyme profiles of α-esterase or lactate dehydrogenase, RAPD profiles with one selected primer differentiated the pear isolates from the other species and revealed an electrophoretic banding pattern similar to that of aP. citrophthora standard. This is the first report ofP. citrophthora on pear trees in Greece.