Effect of a cytochrome P450 inhibitor on abscisic acid biosynthesis and stomatal regulation in citrus trees in water-stressed conditions

The effect of diniconazole, an inhibitor of cytochrome P450, on drought tolerance was examined in ‘Shiranui’ [(Citrus unshiu Marc. × Citrus unshiu Osbeck) × Citrus reticulate Blanco] trees. Diniconazole treatment increased abscisic acid (ABA) concentration in leaves compared with untreated controls in water-stressed conditions after 20 days of water-stress treatment. Diniconazole significantly decreased the stomatal aperture at 9 h after application compared with untreated controls in water-stressed conditions. The photosynthetic rate decreased in water-stressed conditions; however, regardless of the earlier stomatal closure induced by diniconazole application, the decrease of photosynthetic rate was delayed by the application.     

Cryopreservation of shoot apices of hawthorn in vitro cultures originating from East Asia

The objective of this study was to establish a cryopreservation protocol for hawthorn shoot apices (Crataegus pinnatifida Bge.). Cryopreservation was carried out via encapsulation–dehydration, vitrification, and encapsulation–vitrification on shoot apices excised from in vitro cultures. We began by showing that cold-acclimation enhanced the regrowth of cryopreserved apices from 10.0 to 65.5% in encapsulation–dehydration. We then decided that the encapsulation–dehydration method was an optimal cryopreservation method for hawthorn shoot apices in terms of its high recovery after cryopreservation as well as its ease of use compared with vitrification and encapsulation–vitrification. In encapsulation–dehydration, the protocol leading to optimal regrowth was as follows: after cold-acclimation at 5 °C in the dark for 2 weeks, excised shoot tips were pretreated for 24 h at 25 °C on hormone-free Murashige and Skoog [Murashige, T., Skoog, F., 1962. A revised medium for rapid growth and bioassays with tobacco tissue culture. Physiol. Plant. 15, 473–497] (MS) basal medium with 0.4 mol/L sucrose, then encapsulated and precultured in liquid MS medium with 0.8 mol/L sucrose for 16 h at 25 °C. Precultured beads were dehydrated for 6 h at 25 °C in the dessicator containing 50 g silica gel to a moisture content of 15.3% (fresh-weight basis) before cryostorage for 1 h. In addition, we examined the effect of adding glycerol to both the alginate beads and loading solution to enhance regrowth after cryopreservation in encapsulation–dehydration. In the present study, it was shown that adding 0.5 mol/L glycerol resulted in high regrowth percentages (82.5–90.0%) in four Crataegus species.     

Phylogenetic relationships in Origanum spp. based on rDNA sequences and intra-genetic variation of Greek O. vulgare subsp. hirtum revealed by RAPD

Origanum species are among the most widely spread herbs in the Mediterranean basin. Eventhough they are used as a spice, evaluation of their genetic diversity and evolution has only recently drawn attention. In order to study phylogenetic relationships, 14 ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 clones belonging to the most common Origanum species were sequenced and a parsimony tree was constructed, using the approximate likelihood ratio test. All Origanum species were clearly separated from allied genera of the Mentheae tribe while a clear distinction between the Greek and the Spanish accessions was revealed. In addition the germplasm variability of the most common Greek oregano (O. vulgare subsp. hirtum) was investigated using the RAPD markers. The use of 10 random decamers resulted in 133 unambiguous and reproducible bands detected across 27 entries. Two main groups were identified by the UPGMA clustering using Jaccard's similarity coefficient, and major genetic dissimilarities among Greek O. vulgare subsp. hirtum populations and O. onites/O. virens species were detected. Analysis of molecular variance revealed that genetic variability is distributed mainly within populations; however, significant Φ_st values were detected between different geographical localities, supporting noteworthy genetic differentiation among O. vulgare subsp. hirtum populations.     

Drying half of the root-zone from mid fruit growth to maturity in ‘Hass’ avocado (Persea americana Mill.) trees for one season reduced fruit production in two years

We tested the effect of extended drying of half the root system on fruit yield and fruit Ca concentration, an indirect measure of fruit quality, in avocado (Persea americana Mill. cv Hass). In a field experiment on a sandy soil, withholding irrigation and plastic sheeting was used to dry the root-zone beneath the whole canopy (DD) or half the canopy (WD), compared with well-watered trees (WW). The irrigation water contained added nutrients and was slightly saline. Yield, shoot growth, leaf conductance, leaf and fruit water status and mineral concentrations of leaves and fruit were studied. The responses of treated trees were assessed in the following season during which normal irrigation practices were restored. With respect to yield, the WD treatment behaved the same as the DD treatment. It reduced yield by more than half and proportionately more than the reduction in water supply thus reducing irrigation efficiency. Re-watering did not restore yield of WD or DD-trees in the next season. The WD and DD treatments had no effect on the concentration of Ca in the fruit mesocarp and so are unlikely to affect fruit quality. The main impact of reduced water supply on the trees was fruit abscission and this was linked to dry soil around the roots rather than the water status of the leaves or fruits. We conclude that extended drying of half of the root-zone in one season reduced irrigation efficiency for two seasons by promoting the abscission of developing fruit to the same extent as occurred when the whole root system was exposed to extended drying.     

Effectiveness of l‐ascorbyl‐2‐monophosphate Na/Ca as a vitamin C source for yellowtail Seriola quinqueradiata juveniles

A feeding experiment was conducted to examine the efficacy of a vitamin C (L‐ascorbic acid, AsA) derivative, l ‐ascorbyl‐2‐monophosphate Na/Ca (AMP‐Na/Ca) by comparing to l ‐ascorbyl‐2‐monophosphate‐Mg (AMP‐Mg) in terms of growth, AsA content in tissues, and hematology in yellowtail Seriola quinqueradiata juvenile (1.10 ± 0.01 g). Furthermore, a stress resistance test for the species fed AMP‐Na/Ca was also conducted. In experiment 1, 11 test pellet diets with different levels of AMP‐Na/Ca (0, 12, 43, 88, 440 and 881 mg AsA kg^?1diet) and AMP‐Mg (0, 16, 52, 106, 595 and 1164 mg AsA kg^?1 diet) were formulated and fed to the yellowtail three times per day for 50 days. In both the vitamin C sources, the survival rates of the fish fed diets without supplemental AsA were lower than 50% at day 20, and more than 50% mortality occurred in fish that fed the diets containing 12 or 16 mg AsA kg^?1 after day 30. However, no significant differences were detected in survival and growth among fish that fed the diets containing more than 43 mg AsA kg^?1. Liver and brain AsA concentrations generally increased with increasing dietary AsA level in both sources. In experiment 2, test diets were formulated to contain 43, 88, 440 and 881 mg AsA kg^?1 using AMP‐Na/Ca, and after 60 days of feeding, yellowtail juveniles were subjected to low salinity and air exposure stress. The fish that received diets with 440 mg AsA kg^?1 showed significantly higher tolerance to low salinity stress and higher survival rate in air exposure stress than those of other groups. The present study demonstrated that yellowtail juveniles could utilize AMP‐Na/Ca as an AsA source like AMP‐Mg, and that supplementation of 43–52 mg AsA kg^?1 diet was optimum for normal growth. However, this study showed that dietary inclusion of 440 mg AsA kg^?1 would be necessary to improve stress resistance of this species.     

Comparative intestinal absorption of amino acids in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), totoaba (Totoaba macdonaldi) and Pacific bluefin tuna (Thunnus orientalis)

The kinetics of amino acid absorption in the proximal section of three fish species were studied using an everted intestine technique and a pancreatic digest of casein (Tryptone), as the model amino acid mixture. Fresh intestine of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) was used to set up the experimental system, and results were compared with those obtained using intestines from totoaba (Totoaba macdonaldi) and bluefin tuna fish (Thunnus orientalis). The kinetics of amino acid absorption was sigmoidal for all amino acids and for each species of fish tested. In general, specific absorptions of essential amino acids were higher than those of non‐essential ones. No correlation between the concentration of amino acids in the Tryptone solution and the corresponding absorptions was found. The maximum specific absorption rates of all amino acids for trout were 10 times higher than those determined for totoaba and bluefin tuna. The relative amounts of the different amino acids preferentially absorbed in all three species were different. Results obtained from the everted technique may be applicable to the design of formulated diets for large fish species with commercial value.     

Effects of different dietary protein and lipid levels on growth, feed utilization and body composition of red porgy (Pagrus pagrus) fingerlings

Two feeding trials were conducted to determine the minimum dietary protein level producing maximum growth, and the optimum protein to energy ratio in diets for red porgy (Pagrus pagrus) fingerlings, respectively. In the first trial, six isoenergetic diets were formulated with protein levels ranging from 400 to 650 g kg^?1 in increments of 50 g kg^?1, and fed for 11 weeks to 2.8 g average initial weight fish. Weight gain, specific growth rate and feed efficiency were significantly higher with diets containing higher protein levels, when compared with dietary levels below 500 g kg^?1. The highest protein efficiency ratios were obtained in fish fed 500 g kg^?1 dietary protein. The minimum dietary protein level producing maximum fish growth was found to be 500 g kg^?1. In the second trial, 15 g average initial weight fish were fed for 12 weeks, six diets containing three different lipid levels (100, 150 and 200 g kg^?1) combined with two protein levels (450 and 500 g kg^?1). Weight gain values increased when dietary lipids increased from 100 to 150 g kg^?1, with a further decrease for 200 g kg^?1 lipids in diets; the lowest fish growth being supported by 200 g kg^?1 dietary lipids. Fish growth was significantly higher when dietary protein increased from 450 to 500 g kg^?1. There was no evidence of a protein‐sparing effect of dietary lipids. Liver protein and lipid contents were low when compared with other fish species. All diet assayed produced high liver glycogen accumulation. The recommended protein and lipid levels in diets for red porgy fingerlings were 500 and 150 g kg^?1, respectively.     

Towards an integrated understanding of green space in the European built environment

In recent years social, economic and environmental considerations have led to a reevaluation of the factors that contribute to sustainable urban environments. Increasingly, urban green space is seen as an integral part of cities providing a range of services to both the people and the wildlife living in urban areas. With this recognition and resulting from the simultaneous provision of different services, there is a real need to identify a research framework in which to develop multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary research on urban green space. In order to address these needs, an iterative process based on the delphi technique was developed, which comprised email-mediated discussions and a two-day symposium involving experts from various disciplines. The two outputs of this iterative process were (i) an integrated framework for multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary research and (ii) a catalogue of key research questions in urban green space research. The integrated framework presented here includes relevant research areas (i.e. ecosystem services, drivers of change, pressures on urban green space, human processes and goals of provision of urban green space) and emergent research themes in urban green space studies (i.e. physicality, experience, valuation, management and governance). Collectively these two outputs have the potential to establish an international research agenda for urban green space, which can contribute to the better understanding of people's relationship with cities.     

Temporal variability in water quality of agricultural tailwaters: Implications for water quality monitoring

Accurate assessments of non-point source pollution and the associated evaluation of mitigation strategies depend on effective water quality monitoring programs. Intensive irrigation season water quality monitoring was conducted on three agricultural drains (6 h to daily sampling) along with analysis of decade long records from two larger agricultural drains (biweekly to monthly sampling) in the San Joaquin Valley, California. Analyses revealed significant temporal variability in concentrations of nutrients, salts, and turbidity over short time-scales (<1 day), as well as significant differences in monthly and annual mean concentrations. Statistical techniques were used to evaluate the sampling intensity required to meet rigorous confidence and accuracy criteria, as well as to evaluate the efficacy of different sampling strategies (e.g. grab samples versus composite samples). The number of samples required to determine mean constituent concentrations within 20% of the mean at a 95% confidence level ranged from 2 to 39 samples per month (SPM) for total phosphorus, 1-16 SPM for total nitrogen, 5-25 SPM for turbidity, and 1-3 SPM for electrical conductivity. Using a daily composite sample (4 subsamples per composite) instead of discrete samples was shown to maintain the same accuracy and confidence standards, while reducing the required sample number by up to 50%. This study emphasizes the value of a statistical approach for evaluating water quality monitoring strategies, and provides a framework through which cost-benefit analysis can be implemented in the development of monitoring plans.