Herpesviruses and immunity: The art of evasion

Herpesviruses have evolved several effective strategies to counter the host immune response. Chief among these is inhibition of the host MHC class I antigen processing and presentation pathway, thereby reducing the presentation of virus-derived epitopes on the surface of the infected cell. This review summarizes the mechanisms used by herpesviruses to achieve this goal, including shut-down of MHC class I molecule synthesis, blockage of proteasome-mediated peptide generation and prevention of TAP-mediated peptide transport. Furthermore, herpesvirus proteins can retain MHC class I molecules in the endoplasmic reticulum, or direct their retrograde translocation from the endoplasmic reticulum or endocytosis from the plasma membrane, with subsequent degradation. The resulting down-regulation of cell surface MHC class I peptide complexes thwarts the ability of cytotoxic T lymphocytes to recognize and eliminate virus-infected cells. The subversion of the natural killer cell response by herpesvirus proteins and microRNAs is also discussed.     

Mutations in the DJ-1 gene associated with autosomal recessive early-onset parkinsonism

The DJ-1 gene encodes a ubiquitous, highly conserved protein. Here, we show that DJ-1 mutations are associated with PARK7, a monogenic form of human parkinsonism. The function of the DJ-1 protein remains unknown, but evidence suggests its involvement in the oxidative stress response. Our findings indicate that loss of DJ-1 function leads to neurodegeneration. Elucidating the physiological role of DJ-1 protein may promote understanding of the mechanisms of brain neuronal maintenance and pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease.     

Effect of gelatinization and hydrolysis conditions on the selectivity of starch hydrolysis with alpha-amylase from Bacillus licheniformis

Enzymatic hydrolysis of starch can be used to obtain various valuable hydrolyzates with different compositions. The effects of starch pretreatment, enzyme addition point, and hydrolysis conditions on the hydrolyzate composition and reaction rate during wheat starch hydrolysis with alpha-amylase from Bacillus licheniformis were compared. Suspensions of native starch or starch gelatinized at different conditions either with or without enzyme were hydrolyzed. During hydrolysis, the oligosaccharide concentration, the dextrose equivalent, and the enzyme activity were determined. We found that the hydrolyzate composition was affected by the type of starch pretreatment and the enzyme addition point but that it was just minimally affected by the pressure applied during hydrolysis, as long as gelatinization was complete. The differences between hydrolysis of thermally gelatinized, high-pressure gelatinized, and native starch were explained by considering the granule structure and the specific surface area of the granules. These results show that the hydrolyzate composition can be influenced by choosing different process sequences and conditions.     

Removal of introduced predators, but not artificial refuge supplementation, increases skink survival in coastal duneland

Exotic predators can have detrimental impacts on indigenous fauna. Lethal predator control is commonly used to reduce predator impacts, but is not always feasible, effective or ethical. A promising non-lethal alternative is refuge supplementation for prey. We conducted a Before-After Control-Impact (BACI) experiment over 3 years to determine the relative effects of predator removal (by exclosure fencing) and artificial refuge supplementation on survival of McCann’s skink (Oligosoma maccanni) in duneland on Kaitorete Spit (South Island, New Zealand). Skink populations on 0.0625 ha-grids were randomly assigned to four treatment groups, each replicated four times: (a) predator exclosure only; (b) artificial retreats only; (c) exclosure + artificial retreats, and (d) control (no exclosure or artificial retreats), and monitored annually by pitfall trapping. Capture-recapture analysis was used to estimate the difference in annual survival probability between pre- and post-treatment periods. On average, survival increased only at grids that received the exclosure-only treatment (effect size of 0.03 (0.017-0.043; unconditional 95% CI)). Reduction in predator abundance (by lethal predator control or predator exclusion), but not artificial refuge supplementation, is predicted to benefit McCann’s skink. Our findings add to other studies highlighting the detrimental impacts of exotic predators on indigenous prey and calls for improved means of reducing predator impacts.     

Vulnerability to eutrophication of a semi-annual life history: A lesson learnt from an extinct eelgrass (Zostera marina) population

A semi-annual eelgrass (Zostera marina L.) population became extinct in 2004. It had flourished for many decades at Terschelling in the western Wadden Sea, one of the most eutrophied locations where seagrass growth has been recorded. Semi-annual populations survive the winter season by seed (annual), and by incidental plant survival (semi-annual). We compared seed bank dynamics and fate of plants between this impacted site and a reference site in the winter of 1990-1991. Seed bank density at Terschelling was extremely low (5-35 seeds m⁻²) in comparison to the reference site (>60 seeds m⁻²) and also in comparison to seed bank densities of (semi-)annual eelgrass populations in other parts of the world. Plant survival during winter was nil. Nevertheless, the population more than doubled its area in 1991, implying maximum germination and seedling survival rates. However, from 1992 onwards the decline set in and continued - while the nutrient levels decreased. To establish the cause of the low seed bank density, we conducted a transplantation experiment in 2004 to study the relationship between seed production and macro-algal cover. The transplantation experiment showed a negative relationship between the survival of seed producing shoots and suffocation by macro-algae, which is associated with light limitation and unfavourable biogeochemical conditions. The plants died before they had started to produce seeds. Thus, it is likely that macro-algal cover was responsible for the low seed bank density found in Terschelling in 1990-1991. Both the recorded low seed bank density and absence of incidental plant survival during winter were related to eutrophication. These parameters must have been a severe bottleneck in the life history of the extinct population at the impacted site, particularly as Z. marina seed banks are transient. Therefore we deduce that this population had survived at the edge of collapse, and became extinct after a small, haphazard environmental change. We argue that its resilience during these years must have been due to (i) maximum germination and seedling survival rates and (ii) spatial spreading of risks: parts of the population may have survived at locally macro-algae-free spots from where the area could be recolonised. As a consequence, the timing of the collapse was unpredictable and did not synchronise with the eutrophication process. The lesson learnt for conservation is to recognise that eutrophication may be a cause for seagrass population collapse and its eventual extinction, even years after nutrient levels stabilised, or even decreased.