Environmental limitation on fitness: Reproduction of laboratory mice in benign and stressful ("tropical") conditions

SUMMARY: In general, the environment limits the fitness of individual animals, and environmental limitation leads to selection for "optimal", intermediate values for all traits that matter, whether imposed by natural or artificial selection. We compared the reproduction of laboratory mice in a normal and a hot, humid environment to test this claim. Thirty males and 150 females from a non-inbred line adapted to normal conditions were mated twice (the second time after rerandomisation) to produce the experimental animals. Individual experimental mice from each litter were allocated from weaning (3 weeks) either to the normal or hot environment. At 9 to 12 weeks of age these mice were paired, 1 male with 1 female, until the female had a chance to have 2 litters. 354 pairs in the normal and 362 pairs in the hot environment were mated. All living progeny were weaned at 3 weeks. Average values of reproductive traits, phenotypic correlations between traits, and heritability estimates for many traits were found in each environment. Negative correlations (trade-offs) between litter number and weight of individual progeny in both environments demonstrated clearly that fitness was limited even in the normal laboratory situation. All quantitative measures of reproduction were lower in the hot room showing that it was more stressful. Yet size of individual young and their survival was not reduced. This may be an adaptive mechanism restricted to housemice. Lower heritability estimates in first than in second parities for quantitative measures of litter size show that while the mouse is still growing she has fewer resources available for reproduction, making her more susceptible to environmental stress. This challenges accepted wisdom that animal breeders should select their animals when they are young. They are least likely to respond then. We believe that natural selection causes animals always to push their fitness (reproduction and survival of the progeny) against a limit set by their particular environment. Each environment selects animals that optimally allocate environmental resources there. Problems arise when inappropriate genetic settings cause phenotypes to misallocate metabolic resources. In relatively difficult environments productive animals, including successful transgenics, allocate insufficient resources to fitness. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG: Begrenzung der Fitne? durch die Umwelt: Reproduktion von Laborm?usen in günstigen und schwierigen ("tropischen") Bedingungen Im Normalfall soll die Umwelt der Fitne? eine obere Grenze setzen. Diese Begrenzung führt zu Selektion auf mittlere "Optimalwerte" bei alien wichtigen Merkmalen. Wir untersuchten die Fortpflanzung von Laborm?usen in entweder normaler oder hei?er Umwelt. Aus einer an erstere angepa?ten, nichtingezüchteten Linie wurden 30 M?nnchen mit 150 Weibchen zweimal verpaart (beim zweiten Mal neu randomisiert) um die Versuchstiere zu erzeugen. Individuen aus jedem Wurf wurden zufallsm??ig an die zwei Umwelten verteilt, worin sie ab 3 Wochen aufgezogen wurden. Im Alter zwischen 9 und 12 Wochen wurden sie zufallsm??ig 1:1 verpaart bis die Paare Zeit für zwei Würfe gehabt hatten. An 354 und 362 Paaren im normalen und hei?en Zimmer wurden Daten ihrer Reproduktion erhoben. Alle lebendgeborenen Jungen wurden bis 3 Wochen alt verfolgt. In beiden Umwelten wurden Durchschnittswerte der einzelnen Merkmale, ph?notypische Korrelationen wichtiger Merkmale, und Heritabilit?tswerte der Merkmale errechnet. Starke negative Korrelationen zwischen Anzahl der Jungen im Wurf und Gewicht der einzelnen Jungen im Wurf, in beiden Umwelten, zeigen da? Fitne? auch in normalen Laborverh?ltnissen begrenzt war. Alle quantitativen Ma?e der Würfe waren betr?chtlich niedriger im hei?en Raum, was zeigt, da? diese Umwelt mehr Stre? bot. Jedoch die Gr??e und überlebensrate der einzelnen Jungen im hei?en Raum wurden nicht beeintr?chtigt. Diese adaptive Anpassung an schwierige Bedingungen k?nnte einmalig bei Mus musculus sein. Niedere Heritabilit?ten von quantitativen Ma?en der Wurfgr??e im ersten gegenüber dem zweiten Wurf zeigen, da? noch selbst wachsende Weibchen nur wenig Ressourcen für Fortpflanzung einsetzen k?nnen und deshalb mehr von Umweltdruck abh?ngen. Paradoxerweise versuchen Tierzüchter meistens so Jung wie m?glich Tiere zu selektieren, die solcher Selektion auf Reproduktion am wenigsten folgen k?nnen. Diese Situation sollte erneut durchdacht werden. Uns scheint, da? Tiere, weil natürliche Selektion andauernd fortwirkt, jederzeit ihre Fitne? bis an eine obere Grenze, von der Umwelt gesetzt, schieben. Jede Umwelt selektiert Tiere, die ihre metabolischen Ressourcen darin optimal einsetzen. Probleme entstehen, wenn genetische Information Ph?notype erzeugt, die Ressourcen fehl einsetzen. In relativ schwieriger Umwelt haben Leistungstiere, und auch erfolgreiche transgenische Tiere, ungenügend Ressourcen übrig für Fortpflanzung.     

Variation of the growth hormone gene in ryr 1 genotyped Austrian pig breeds

SUMMARY: Polymorphism in the second intron of the porcine growth hormone gene of 273 Austrian Landrace and 81 Austrian Edelschwein pigs was investigated with a PCR-RFLP-technique. Results showed significantly different genotype patterns between the two breeds. The frequency of the Hae II(-) allele was significantly (P < 0,001) higher in the landrace than in the Edelschwein population (0,83 and 0,47 resp.). The Msp I(+) allele was predominant in both breeds but signifanctly higher in the Landrace (0,98 versus 0,69; P < 0,01). Analyses the Hae II/Msp I locus combination revealed also in breed specific difference. In the Landrace a very low interaction was found between the Hae II and ryr 1 locus, and between Msp I and ryr 1 locus (c. c. = 0,181 and 0,186 resp.). The correlation was slightly stronger (c. c. = 0,266) between the ryr 1 and Hae II/Msp I genotypes. No correlation was detected among the three loci in the Edelschwein population. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG: Variabilit?t des Somatotropin Gens in ?sterreichischen Schweinerassen genotypisiert hinsicbtlich ryr 1 An 273 ?sterreichischen Landrasse Schweinen und 81 ?sterreichischen Edelschweinen wurde der Polymorphismus am zweiten Intron des Schweinewachstumshormons mittels PCR-RFLP-Technik untersucht. Genotypen-und Genfrequenzen waren zwischen den beiden Rassen signifikant verschie- den. Die Hae II(-) Allelfrequenz war bei den Landrassetieren signifikant h?her (P < 0,001) als bei den Edelschweinen (0,83 bzw. 0,47). In beiden Rassen überwiegte das Msp I(+) Allel, das aber signifikant ?fters bei der Landrasse auftrat (0,98 bzw. 0,69; P < 0,01). Die Verteilung der Locuskombination von Hae II/Msp I zwischen den beiden Rassen war ebenfalls unterschiedlich. Bei der Landrasse konnte nur ein sehr geringer Zusammenhang zwischen dem Hae II und ryr 1 Locus (c. c. = 0,181 bzw. 0,186) und auch zwischen dem Msp I und ryr 1 Locus festgestellt werden. Die Korrelation zwischen dem ryr 1 und Hae II/Msp I Genotyp war geringfügig gr??;er (c. c. = 0,266). Bei den Edelschweinen konnte kein Zusammenhang zwischen den drei untersuchten Loci festgestellt werden.     

Effects of Neem Seed Derivatives on Brown Planthopper Symbiotes

Populations of intracellular symbiotes declined significantly in brachypterous females of the brown planthopper,Nilaparvata lugens (Stål), which were stressed during nymphal development by caging them on IR20 rice plants treated with 3% neem oil, 5% neem seed kernel aqueous extract, or 10% neem cake aqueous extract. In addition, nymphs grew poorly and symbiote populations in prospective females declined, when reared on rice plants grown in soil treated with neem cake; this indicates systemic action of bioac-tive neem constituents. Addition of custard-apple oil to neem oil did not enhance the inhibitory effects. The effects of neem derivatives on the symbiotes may be either host-mediated — possibly through disturbed neuroendocrine homeostasis, or direct — leading to perturbations of host-symbiote equilibrium.     

Effects of timing and size of daylength change on brown egg laying domestic hens: Plasma luteinising hormone concentration and sexual maturity

1. Brown egg laying pullets were transferred from an 8‐h photoperiod to an 8‐, 10‐, 13‐ or 16‐h photoperiod at 6, 9, 12, 15, 18 or 20–3 weeks of age. Plasma luteinising hormone (LH) concentrations were measured at transfer and 7 and 14 d afterwards.

2. Significant increases in plasma LH occurred following light stimulations at 6, 9 and 12 weeks of age.

3. Changes in LH concentration 7 d after a light increase from 8 h to 8, 10, 13, 16 h were highly correlated with photoperiod length at 9 and 12 weeks of age.

4. Changes in LH were generally poorly correlated with age at sexual maturity, although the reduced influence on age at first egg of a light increase given close to sexual maturity was reflected in minimal LH responses at 18 and 20.3 weeks.     

Peaks of brainstem auditory evoked potentials in dogs

The effects of electrode configuration and click polarity on brainstem auditory evoked potentials (BAEP) in dogs were investigated to clarify the inconsistent nomenclature for each peak. Four positive peaks (waves 1, 2, 3 and 4) before a deep negative trough and a fifth positive peak (wave 5) following the trough were the basic components of BAEP in dogs, which were easily identified regardless of recording conditions such as electrode configuration and click polarity. Additional peaks tended to be present when a noncephalic reference electrode and/or single-polarity (rarefaction or condensation) click stimuli were used. The Roman nomenclature for the individual positive peaks of BAEP in dogs is confused owing to variations in the observed waveforms among researchers, but click polarity and/or reference electrode position can explain all the previously reported variations in BAEP waveforms in dogs. When the criteria concerning wave V in the guidelines of BAEP in human beings are applied to avoid further confusion of Roman nomenclature in dogs, it is recommended that the basic five positive peaks (waves 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 as identified easily with Ai-Vertex configuration and alternating clicks) are designated as waves I, II, III, V and VI, respectively. Wave IV (wave 3b) occurs occasionally before wave V in dogs.Abbreviations BAEP brainstem auditory evoked potentials - dBHL dB hearing level - IPL interpeak latency - Ai the caudodorsal end of the zygomatic arch ipsilateral to the stimulated ear - Nape the neck over the spinous process of the fourth cervical vertebra     

Reduced protein kinase C activity and endogenous protein phosphorylation in ethionine-induced fatty liver in cows

Protein kinase C (PKC) activity was evaluated and the phosphorylation of its endogenous substrates was explored in fatty liver induced by administration of ethionine (an analogue of methionine) to cows in order to assess the relevance of PKC-dependent phosphorylation in the development of fatty liver. PKC activity was decreased in both the cytosolic and the total particulate fractions from fatty livers, compared to the corresponding fractions from control liver. The mode of activation by the PKC cofactors (1-oleoyl-2-acetyl-sn-glycerol, 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate, phosphatidylserine and Ca²⁺) was similar in both control and fatty livers, suggesting a quantitative but not a qualitative change in PKC in fatty liver. At least three substrate proteins (34 kDa, 26 kDa and 19 kDa) were found in the cytosolic fraction and their phosphorylation was reduced in fatty liver. These results suggest that impairment of the signal transduction pathway mediated by PKC is involved in the pathogenesis of fatty liver in cows.Abbreviations ATP adenosine triphosphate - EGTA ethylene glycol bis(-aminoethylether)-N,N,N,N-tetraacetic acid - NEFA non-esterified fatty acid - OAG 1-oleoyl-2-acetyl-sn-glycerol - PKC protein kinase C - PS phosphatidylserine - SDS-PAGE sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis - TG triglyceride - TPA 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate     

Application of subjective methods to the determination of the likelihood and consequences of the entry of foot-and-mouth disease into New Zealand

New Zealand has a history of continuous freedom from foot-and-mouth disease and relies on a two-tier system of surveillance to maintain this status. The first involves border control procedures and stringent importation standards, and the second is an exotic disease and pest response programme. As part of an economic evaluation comparing the exotic disease and pest response programme against a hypothetical lower grade ;measured response programme subjective judgements of the risks involved were required. Twenty-eight selected animal health professionals, predominantly veterinarians, were posted a questionnaire that used three techniques (single point estimates, three point estimates and elicitation methods) to determine the risk components in a foot-and-mouth disease outbreak. The two key variables were the probability of an outbreak in New Zealand, and the number of secondary properties to which the disease spread during the epidemic. A Delphi conference of ten selected participants then focused mainly on the two key variables, with a second round postal extension to this group for the first variable. The individual data sets were then analysed and combined using a stochastic simulation technique. The final mean probability of an outbreak was about once in 50 years (0.0199). The mean numbers of farms to which disease would spread during an epidemic under the existing exotic disease and pest response programme, a measured response programme which allowed vaccination and a measured response programme which excluded vaccination were estimated to be 61, 478 and 2230 respectively. The policy implications arising from the quantification of these two key variables are that more expenditure on preparedness is justifiable and current resource planning is barely adequate.     

Pathogenic mechanisms of caprine arthritis-encephalitis virus

Goats infected with caprine arthritis-encephalitis virus (CAEV) show chronic arthritis and cachexia, which are progressive in nature. The immunopathogenic mechanisms responsible for these progressive clinical symptoms have not been fully elucidated. Various haematological and immunological parameters were evaluated in experimentally-infected goats showing typical signs of CAEV-induced disease. Infected goats showed recurrent lymphocytosis that may be due to constant presentation of antigen by infected cells of a monocyte/macrophage lineage. The serum alkaline phosphatase and -glutamyl transferase concentrations were elevated in infected goats, a characteristic of hepatic and bone disorders. All other serum chemistry parameters were similar between infected and control goats. Importantly, the serum tumour necrosis factor- (TNF-) levels were higher in infected goats. The cachexia seen in infected goats may be at least partly due to altered metabolism as a result of prolonged elevation of serum TNF- levels. Depressed natural killer cell activity was observed in infected goats and may contribute towards the establishment of a persistent infection with CAEV.Abbreviations AIDS acquired immunodeficiency syndrome - CAEV caprine arthritis-encephalitis virus - GGT -glutamyl transferase - HBSS Hanks' balanced salt solution - HIV human immunodeficiency virus - NK natural killer - PBMC peripheral blood mononuclear cells - PCR polymerase chain reaction - SAP serum alkaline phosphatase - TNF tumour necrosis factor