Problems translating a questionnaire in a cross-cultural setting.

Questionnaires are widely used in veterinary epidemiological studies. With careful design, assessment and administration, questionnaires can collect accurate data. In cross-cultural settings, questionnaire design is complicated by the added step of translation. As part of a cross-sectional study of smallholder pig raisers in the Philippines, we assessed the importance of translation as a source of error in our questionnaire. The questionnaire contained 120 questions that collected data for entry into 361 separate data-entry fields in a computerised database. The translation was verified using the methods of back-translation and pilot-testing to identify and quantify errors of literal translation, omission and mistranslation. Errors were identified in 44 (37%) questions that obtained data for 147 (41%) data-entry fields. Although errors might have remained in the final translated version of the questionnaire, we have no doubt that the verification procedures substantially improved the internal validity of the questionnaire. It is important that veterinary epidemiologists use such procedures to check the internal validity of translated questionnaires.     

Salicylic acid mediated multi-pronged strategy to combat bacterial blight disease (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Xanthomonas axonopodis</Emphasis> pv. <Emphasis Type="Italic">punicae</Emphasis>) in pomegranate

Pomegranate bacterial blight disease caused by Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. punicae is one of the most serious threat to the pomegranate industry in India. So far, the chemicals used to control this pathogen alone are less effective. In this article, an attempt was made to supplement chemical control through improving the systemic acquired resistance of plant using nutrients such as nitrogen (N) and salicylic acid (SA) as elicitor. The study revealed that foliar application of SA at the rate of 300 ppm increased above-ground dry mass of plant by 64.97%, improved chlorophyll content of leaves and resulted higher concentration of macro-elements and micro-elements, particularly Mn and Zn, in leaves. It also significantly increased the activities of nitrate reductase (NR), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase and peroxidase. However, the maximum response of SA was recorded when it was sprayed after soil application of N at 100% of the recommended dose. As a consequence, this combination recorded the least bacterial blight infection with average severity of 11.58% followed by without-N application under challenge inoculation of the pathogen. However, sustainable production cannot be realized without N application. The integration of this strategy for activation of defence mechanism of plant with the bactericide streptocycline resulted in further reduction of bacterial blight disease incidence and severity under field condition to very low levels (3.84% and 18.57% respectively).     

Solarization for the control of Pueraria montana (kudzu)

The effects of translucent polyethylene sheeting as a thermal covering to eradicate Pueraria montana (kudzu) were investigated at Clemson, South Carolina on a clay loam. In 2005, the highest reduction of live root crowns was observed where P. montana was covered for the entire growing season (May–October) with a reduction of 42% of live root crowns compared with the control plots. Where P. montana was covered for alternate weeks throughout the growing season live root crowns were reduced by 35%. Covering P. montana for one week and then uncovering for four weeks repeatedly through the season killed 24% of root crowns. In 2006, the second year of treatment to the same plots, the three solarization treatments had similar efficacy of about 97%. The use of polyethylene sheeting appears not to be cost‐effective for general control of large P. montana infestations, but may be useful for small patches.     

Oocyte Morphology from Primordial to Early Tertiary Follicles of Yak

The objective of this study was to investigate the developmental morphology of yak oocytes from the primordial follicle to the tertiary follicle. Yak oocytes from resting primordial (n = 6), activated primordial (n = 12), primary (n = 9), secondary (n = 7) and early tertiary (n = 5) follicles were processed and analysed by light and transmission electron microscopy. The resting primordial follicular oocyte was characterized by relatively smooth surface on the oolemma, the accumulation of free and organelle‐related smooth (SER) and rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER), round or oval mitochondria, and polyribosomes on the surface of the RER and throughout the ooplasm. The activated primordial follicular oocyte was dominated by numerous coated pits and coated vesicles on the oolemma, and round mitochondria. Up to the secondary follicular stage the oocyte displayed an increase in the number of microvilli, polyribosome, Golgi complexes and mitochondria with distinct cristae. During the secondary follicular stage, formation of the zona pellucida, development of a desmosome‐like connection between the oocyte and the granulosa cells, formation of the cortical granules in the oocyte and elongated mitochondria in nearly all oocytes were seen. In the early tertiary follicular oocyte, the perivitelline space was present and a decrease in free SER and RER in the ooplasm occurred; finally, the nucleus migrated from an eccentric to a peripheral location. In conclusion, the growth of the yak oocyte is associated with the relocation and modulation of a number of cytoplasmic organelles as well as the development of oocyte‐specific structures such as the zona pellucida, desmosome‐like connection and cortical granules.     

Serological evidence of exposure to tick fever organisms in young cattle on Queensland dairy farms

OBJECTIVES: To compare the features of farms on which the exposure of young cattle to tick fever organisms is sufficient to ensure that immunity is high and the risk of clinical disease is low (endemic stability) with those of farms on which exposure is insufficient to induce widespread immunity (hence without endemic stability); to examine the relationships between the management of ticks and tick fever, and endemic stability to Babesia bovis, B. bigemina and Anaplasma marginale. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study of 874 cattle between the ages of 6 and 15 months on 64 dairy farms, from three centres in south-eastern Queensland (Mutdapilly, Dayboro and Kenilworth) and one centre in far-north Queensland (Malanda). PROCEDURE: Blood samples collected from between 5 and 20 calves from each farm were submitted for serological assay to determine exposure to B. bovis, B. bigemina and A. marginale. A questionnaire about the farm characteristics and the management of ticks and tick fever was completed with each farmer. RESULTS: On 73% of farms, confirmed clinical cases of tick fever were recalled by the farmer, indicating that tick fever was a threat on most farms. The majority of herds in the study (54 of 64) did not have sufficient numbers of seropositive animals aged between 6 and 15 months to have a low risk of tick fever. Region had an effect on the likelihood of endemic stability for all tick fever organisms. Cattle near Malanda in Far-north Queensland were more likely to be seropositive to B. bovis and B. bigemina. The method, strategy and intensity of tick control were not related to the likelihood of endemic stability when the effect of region was considered. The decision to leave a few ticks on cattle in an effort to induce endemic stability did increase the likelihood of endemic stability to A. marginale. However, in practical terms, it was ineffective, because only 26% of these farms had endemic stability against all three organisms. CONCLUSIONS: Given the low proportion of farms that have endemic stability to the tick fever organisms and the high likelihood of clinical disease, vaccination is recommended to protect dairy cattle from tick fever throughout the tick infested area of Queensland. However, further work is required to determine the economic value of vaccination, taking into account the costs of vaccination, of outbreaks and the protective value of vaccination.     

Assessment of organoleptic postmortem inspection techniques for bovine offal

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate organoleptic postmortem inspection techniques for bovine livers and kidneys. STUDY DESIGN: At Australian export abattoirs, bovine liver and kidneys are assessed and graded by qualified meat inspectors during normal operations. Over a 12-month period at a large abattoir in eastern Australia during 1997 and 1998, a sample of these organs was reassessed independently using a range of pathological and microbiological methods. Agreement between routine inspection and independent assessment was evaluated using methods of inter-rater agreement. RESULTS: A total of 944 livers and 1374 kidneys were included in the study. All of these organs had been classified during routine inspection. The authors examined 363 livers and 329 kidneys both grossly and histologically, including 36 livers and 14 kidneys that were also subjected to microbiological examination. All other organs were only examined grossly. There was only a moderate level of agreement between the routine and independent assessment methods. For livers, the percentage agreement was 80.2%, McNemar's test of symmetry 55.2 (3 degrees of freedom, P < 0.001) and kappa 0.63. For kidneys, the percentage agreement was 67.8%, McNemar's test of symmetry 9.9 (1 df, P = 0.002) and kappa 0.35. CONCLUSIONS: The results reinforce concerns from a number of authors about organoleptic postmortem inspection. Risk assessment methodologies offer the opportunity to modify inspection techniques in a manner that is most relevant to current public health concerns.     

Clinical pathology of Australian bluetongue virus serotype 16 infection in Merino sheep

SUMMARY Viraemic blood from an ox naturally infected with Australian bluetongue (BLU) virus serotype 16 was passaged twice in sheep. Twelve 2- to 4-years-old Merino ewes, negative in a bluetongue agar gel Immunodiffusion test, were Inoculated with viraemic blood from the second sheep passage. They were examined for 18 days and compared with a control group. Significant changes in haematological measurements, namely packed cell volume, total white cell count and lymphocyte count, and in plasma enzyme concentrations, namely aspartate transaminase and creatine kinase, occurred in the infected sheep. All Infected sheep became sick. The antibody response, and clinical and necropsy findings were consistent with other reports of mild to moderate disease with Australian BLU serotypes.