Age prevalence of trypanosomal infections in female Glossina morsitans morsitans (Diptera: Glossinidae) on the plateau area of eastern Zambia

Trypanosomal infections in female Glossina morsitans morsitans were investigated in an area in the Eastern Province of Zambia between 1992 and 1994. A total of 4416 flies were captured, aged using the ovarian ageing method and screened for trypanosomal infections in both the mouthparts, salivary glands and the midgut. Congolense-type infections were identified in 4.8% of the flies. Vivax-type and immature infections were identified in 1.8% and 6.8% of the flies, respectively. The prevalence of congolense-type, vivax-type and immature infections increased with age. For vivax-type infections the age-prevalence relationship could be described by a model assuming a constant per capita rate of infection. For congolense-type and midgut infections, a polynomial term was added to the model significantly improving the fit. The per capita at which flies become infected was significantly higher for immature compared to mature infections. Observations strongly suggest that tsetse acquire new midgut infections at any age and that maturation of these infections is not limited to those obtained during the first blood meal.     

Fertility of Holstein cows and heifers submitted to timed artificial insemination and receiving one or two doses (12 h apart) of semen

The objective of this retrospective study was to assess the effect of receiving a single (n = 50,285) or double (n = 4392) artificial insemination (AI), 12 h apart, within a timed artificial insemination protocol on pregnancy per AI (P/AI) in nulliparous heifers (inseminated with either sex-sorted or conventional semen) and pluriparous Holstein cows in a commercial dairy herd. Also, this study aimed to investigate the relationship between temperature-humidity index (THI) and time of the first AI and fertility. Fertility of cows receiving two AI with normothermia (THI <68) was higher (p < .05) than cows receiving a single AI (42.9% vs. 36.4%). P/AI of cows receiving two AI with severe heat stress (THI >85) was higher (p < .05) than cows receiving a single AI (21.0% vs. 12.6%). Regardless of heat stress conditions, applying the first AI in the morning increased (p < .05) P/AI in cows with double AI than in cows whose first AI occurred in the afternoon (38.4 vs. 33.3%). With moderate heat stress, and sexed-sorted semen, P/AI to timed AI was higher (65.0 vs. 51.9%; p < .05) in heifers receiving double AI than those serviced once. It was concluded that double AI, 12 h apart, enhanced fertility at timed AI than herd mates with a single AI, particularly with heat stress at breeding.     

Managing the water balance of The Fayoum Depression,Egypt

A study of the water balances of The Fayoum irrigated lands and Lake Qarun was made to investigate the management of the irrigation system and the efficiency of irrigation water use. The two water balances are strongly interrelated. The drainage flow to Lake Qarun and the water level of the Lake are in delicate balance. A rise in Lake level causes the inundation of adjacent land. Management of The Fayoum water balance assumes control over irrigation water flows, but this control has technical and organizational limitations. Also discussed is the influence of irrigation practices in The Fayoum on the water balance (e.g., the autumn flushing of fields and farmers' preference for not irrigating at night in winter). Notwithstanding a high overall efficiency, irrigation efficiency during the winter is low. The reasons for this are given, together with the constraints against improving system management. Improved uniformity of the division and application of irrigation water will enable a better technical control of flows and will result in better water management in The Fayoum. Abbreviations: FID — Fayoum Irrigation Department, 1 feddan (fe) — 0.4 ha, 1 mcm — 1 million cubic metres: an average annual flow of 3.17 m³/s gives 100 mcm, m³/fe.year — supplied volume (m³) per surface area (fe) per year: 1000 m³/fe.year equals 240 mm/year, MSL — Mean Sea Level     

Diagnosis of regional evaporation by remote sensing to support irrigation performance assessment

The success of water management in large irrigation schemes with composites of soil, crop, wetness and micro-meteorological conditions is difficult to quantify. Performance assessment indicators, being among others a function of evaporation, are useful tools to evaluate the actual functioning of an irrigation system. The inevitable spatial variability of evaporation in large irrigation schemes makes its determination with conventional point measurements almost impossible. A new remote sensing evaporation parameterization algorithm has been tested with high resolution Landsat Thematic Mapper data for the Eastern Nile Delta, Egypt. Although the implementation of such an algorithm requires assumptions to be made, the current case study shows that these assumptions do not hamper the estimation of actual and potential evaporation at regional scale. The actual evaporation has been used to express the uniformity of crop water use which is related to the equity of irrigation water distribution. The coefficient of variance in actual evaporation between 53 differenent irrigation districts is 10% on average. The relative evaporation was considered to determine whether the crop was adequately irrigated. The relative evaporation was more than 75% for 48 out of 53 irrigation districts. It is concluded, that improved information on actual crop growth conditions through remote sensing provides an essential insight into the planning of real-time and seasonal irrigation water deliveries.     

The impact of increasing farm size and mechanization on rural income and rice production in Zhejiang province,China

Economic growth in China’s agricultural sector lags behind growth in industry and services, creating an ever widening rural–urban income gap. Development of the non-agricultural sectors offers new opportunities for farmers in China’s more advanced provinces such as Zhejiang. Increased income in the urban sector creates markets for new products, and migrating farmers rent their land to those staying. Until now, the prevailing rice-based systems have been managed mainly using manual labour and animal traction, but the larger farms resulting from migration may facilitate, or even require mechanization. In this study, we use a simulation model of the farm household to analyse the effects of increasing farm size and the transition from rice to vegetable production, while also studying the effects of mechanization.     

Using drainage systems for supplementary irrigation

The use of drainage systems for supplementary irrigation is widespread in The Netherlands. One of the operating policies is to raise the surface water level during the growing season in order to reduce drainage (water conservation) or to create subsurface irrigation. This type of operation is based on practical experience, which can be far from optimal.To obtain better founded operational water management rules a total soil water/surface water model was built. In a case study the effects of using the drainage system in a dual-purpose manner on the arable crop production were simulated with the model. Also, the operational rules for managing this type of dual-purpose drainage systems were derived.The average annual simulated increase in crop transpiration due to water conservation and water supply for subsurface irrigation are 6.0 and 5.4 mm.y^–1, respectively. This is equivalent with 520 × 10³ and 460 × 10³ Dfl.y^–1 for the pilot region (2 Dfl 1 US $). The corresponding investments and operational costs are 600 × 10³ Dfl and 9 × 10³ Dfl.y^–1 for water conservation and 3200 × 10³ Dfl and 128 × 10³ Dfl.y^–1 for subsurface irrigation. Hence, water conservation is economically very profitable, whereas subsurface irrigation is less attractive.Comparing the management according to the model with current practice in a water-board during 1983 and 1986 learned that benefits can increase with some 50 and 500 Dfl per ha per year, respectively.     

Water balance estimates of evaporation from ponded rice fields in a semi-arid region

Evaporation from ponded rice grown on fine-textured soils was calculated using a simple water balance equation, and compared with pan evaporation measured at a regional meteorological station. Crop/pan (E_r/E_p) evaporation ratios showed seasonal trends, with values generally exceeding unity during the mid- to late-season ponding period. Mid-summer ratios of E_r/E_p for two experimental fields were not significantly different from those reported in a previous study using a different experimental technique, but were higher on a third. On the average, evaporation over the whole ponding period equalled that from a Class A pan. The assumption that the infiltration or seepage term of the water balance may be neglected for fine-textured soils would seriously overestimate E_r on one of the three experimental sites.     

接种沙门氏菌苗可使新生雏鸡和强制换羽母鸡得到免疫保护

过去人们常认为,由于刚出壳雏鸡的免疫系统尚未发育成熟,同时肠道内缺乏有益的微生物,因而处于高度的敏感期,此时接种沙门氏菌苗产生的保护作用很有限。然而,最新的研究表明,在这些敏感期接种疫苗,可诱发产生保护作用。     

Nitrous Oxide and Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Vietnamese Soil Amended with Different Compost Types at High Temperature

This study aims to determine the effects of compost additions and high temperature on N₂O and CO₂ emissions from a Vietnamese agricultural soil. Soil samples amended with two compost types (commercial compost, SH and chicken compost, CC) at three rates of 1%, 2% and 4% w/w were aerobically incubated at 25°C, 30°C and 35°C for 28 days in the laboratory. N₂O and CO₂ emissions were determined on days 1, 3, 5, 7, 14, 21 and 28. Our results showed that N₂O and CO₂ emissions were significantly affected by temperature, compost additions, and their interactions. Greater N₂O and CO₂ emissions were seen in CC treatments than SH treatments. Higher application rates of CC led to greater N₂O and CO₂ emissions. In SH treatments, higher temperature lowered N₂O emissions but did not affect CO₂ emissions. N₂O and CO₂ emissions were enhanced with CC addition while they showed different responses to increasing temperature.