Cost of distributing oral raccoon-variant rabies vaccine in Ohio: 1997-2000

OBJECTIVE: Analysis of the cost of 8 distributions of oral rabies vaccine (ORV) with strains known to infect raccoons in Ohio between 1997 and 2000. DESIGN: Original study. PROCEDURE: Fishmeal bait containing ORV was distributed on foot, by vehicle, and by helicopter and fixed-wing aircraft. The cost of personnel, vehicles, and helicopter and aircraft use and other associated expenses were obtained from field records and interviews with personnel and agencies involved in the ORV program. RESULTS: Each bait distribution lasted approximately 1 week. Areas baited ranged from 1,701 km2 to 6,497 km2. Density varied for each distribution, with means of 79 baits/km2 for ground baiting and 93 baits/km2 for aerial baiting. Typically, 72 people participated in the ground portion of each distribution and 32 in the aerial portion. The cost of ground baiting (mean +/- SD, 19.24 dollars/km2 +/- 6.35 dollars/km2) was consistently less than that for air baiting (mean +/- SD, 24.71 dollars/km2 +/- 4.65 dollars/kml) for each distribution. The total cost of distribution varied from 30,568 dollars to 145,842 dollars (mean, 96,791 dollars), and bait cost varied from 150,714 dollars to 1,029,423 dollars (mean, 543,839 dollars). The total cost of ORV distributions ranged from 102 dollars/km2 to 261 dollars/km2 (mean, 153 dollars/km2). CONCLUSIONS: In the United States, rabies strains that infect raccoons have been responsible for the largest increase in rabies in animals in the past 3 decades. Use of ORV is a promising new tool that can be used to control rabies in raccoons. Documenting the estimated cost of implementing an ORV program may lead to more efficient use of resources to control and limit the spread of rabies. In addition, accurately measured distribution costs can be used to perform an economic cost-benefit analysis for an ORV program.     

Residues of diuron and phytotoxic degradation products in aquatic situations. II. Diuron in irrigation water

When diuron is used as a soil-residual herbicide in irrigation canals, water quality is protected in standard practice by ‘flushing’–the diversion of the first discharge of water to the drainage system before irrigation is resumed. In three canals treated with diuron at about 40–45 kg ha^?1, flushing for 4 h was relatively inefficient, removing 15% or less of the residual diuron in the sediment. In one other canal approximately 40% was removed during flushing. Cumulative loss of diuron was proportional to the square root of the time of water discharge. The effect of the time interval between treatment and flushing was investigated in trials on soils of typically heavy texture. When flushing closely followed treatment about 6 kg diuron ha^?1 was removed but in three trials, for a range of times from treatment of 5–15 weeks, losses were similar and about 2.5 kg ha^?1, suggesting that a restriction of longer than 5 weeks is unlikely to reduce contamination. In a contrasting soil of sandier texture greater movement of diuron away from the sediment surface probably contributed to a five-fold reduction of diuron extracted in flushing. These data were used to calculate the effects of flushing time on both the concentrations of diuron in water discharged to drains for subsequent re-use and the concentrations in the irrigation water, to aid assessment of hazard to crops. Flushing times required for residues in water to reach 0.1 μg ml^?1, calculated by extrapolation, were in the order of days so that it may be necessary to restrict the use of diuron to farms which can retain the discharge water within their own boundaries, or to areas where dilution in receiving waters can be shown to be adequate.     

Nocturnal transpiration causing disequilibrium between soil and stem predawn water potential in mixed conifer forests of Idaho

Soil water potential (Psi(s)) is often estimated by measuring leaf water potential before dawn (Psi(pd)), based on the assumption that the plant water status has come into equilibrium with that of the soil. However, it has been documented for a number of plant species that stomata do not close completely at night, allowing for nocturnal transpiration and thus preventing nocturnal soil-plant water potential equilibration. The potential for nighttime transpiration necessitates testing the assumption of nocturnal equilibration before accepting Psi(pd) as a valid estimate of Psi(s). We determined the magnitude of disequilibrium between Psi(pd) and Psi(s) in four temperate conifer species across three height classes through a replicated study in northern Idaho. Based on both stomatal conductance and sap flux measurements, we confirmed that the combination of open stomata and high nocturnal atmospheric vapor pressure deficit (D) resulted in nocturnal transpiration in all four species. Nocturnal stomatal conductance (g(s-noc)) averaged about 33% of mid-morning conductance values. We used species-specific estimates of g(s-noc) and leaf specific conductance to correct Psi(pd) values for nocturnal transpiration at the time the samples were collected. Compared with the unadjusted values, corrected values reflected a significantly higher Psi(pd) (when D > 0.12 kPa). These results demonstrate that comparisons of Psi(pd) among species, canopy height classes and sites, and across growing seasons can be influenced by differential amounts of nocturnal transpiration, leading to flawed results. Consequently, it is important to account for the presence of nocturnal transpiration, either through a properly parameterized model or by making Psi(pd) measurements when D is sufficiently low that it cannot drive nocturnal transpiration. Violating these conditions will likely result in underestimation of Psi(s).     

Cancer regression and autoimmunity in patients after clonal repopulation with antitumor lymphocytes

We report here the adoptive transfer, to patients with metastatic melanoma, of highly selected tumor-reactive T cells directed against overexpressed self-derived differentiation antigens after a nonmyeloablative conditioning regimen. This approach resulted in the persistent clonal repopulation of T cells in those cancer patients, with the transferred cells proliferating in vivo, displaying functional activity, and trafficking to tumor sites. This led to regression of the patients' metastatic melanoma as well as to the onset of autoimmune melanocyte destruction. This approach presents new possibilities for the treatment of patients with cancer as well as patients with human immunodeficiency virus-related acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and other infectious diseases.     

A phylogenomic study of birds reveals their evolutionary history

Deep avian evolutionary relationships have been difficult to resolve as a result of a putative explosive radiation. Our study examined approximately 32 kilobases of aligned nuclear DNA sequences from 19 independent loci for 169 species, representing all major extant groups, and recovered a robust phylogeny from a genome-wide signal supported by multiple analytical methods. We documented well-supported, previously unrecognized interordinal relationships (such as a sister relationship between passerines and parrots) and corroborated previously contentious groupings (such as flamingos and grebes). Our conclusions challenge current classifications and alter our understanding of trait evolution; for example, some diurnal birds evolved from nocturnal ancestors. Our results provide a valuable resource for phylogenetic and comparative studies in birds.     

Alteration of lymphocyte trafficking by sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor agonists

Blood lymphocyte numbers, essential for the development of efficient immune responses, are maintained by recirculation through secondary lymphoid organs. We show that lymphocyte trafficking is altered by the lysophospholipid sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) and by a phosphoryl metabolite of the immunosuppressive agent FTY720. Both species were high-affinity agonists of at least four of the five S1P receptors. These agonists produce lymphopenia in blood and thoracic duct lymph by sequestration of lymphocytes in lymph nodes, but not spleen. S1P receptor agonists induced emptying of lymphoid sinuses by retention of lymphocytes on the abluminal side of sinus-lining endothelium and inhibition of egress into lymph. Inhibition of lymphocyte recirculation by activation of S1P receptors may result in therapeutically useful immunosuppression.     

Interventions shown to aid executive function development in children 4 to 12 years old

To be successful takes creativity, flexibility, self-control, and discipline. Central to all those are executive functions, including mentally playing with ideas, giving a considered rather than an impulsive response, and staying focused. Diverse activities have been shown to improve children's executive functions: computerized training, noncomputerized games, aerobics, martial arts, yoga, mindfulness, and school curricula. All successful programs involve repeated practice and progressively increase the challenge to executive functions. Children with worse executive functions benefit most from these activities; thus, early executive-function training may avert widening achievement gaps later. To improve executive functions, focusing narrowly on them may not be as effective as also addressing emotional and social development (as do curricula that improve executive functions) and physical development (shown by positive effects of aerobics, martial arts, and yoga).