Relationships between disease levels on seed tubers,on crops during growth and in stored potatoes. 1. Introduction and black scurf

Summary In the Introduction general methods are described to assess inocolum of several potato diseases on seed tubers; on the progeny tubers during growth, at harvest and after 4 different storage regimes. Assessments were made in up to 26 commercial King Edward crops in each of 5 years, and up to 13 crops from ‘healthier’ seed, derived from stem cuttings, in 4 years. Results are reported from the work on black scurf (Rhizoctonia solani). Stem canker incidence was more closely related to the incidence of sclerotia on seed tubers than was the frequency ofRhizoctonia hyphae on growing tuber surfaces. Incidence of sclerotia on stored tubers was better related to the amount of surface colonization during growth than that of stem canker. Assessments on harvested and stored progeny of ‘healthier’ seed were correlated with those on adjacent commercial crops, indicating spread or, more likely, a common source of inocolum.

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Zusammenfassung In einer Studie wurde das Auftreten verschiedener Krankheiten im Erntegut der Sorte King Edward untersucht, die zwischen 1971 und 1975 in dem Fenland-Gebiet von Ostengland gewachsen war. Jedes Jahr wurden zwischen 15 und 26 Proben von Marktware untersucht und zwischen 1972 und 1975 wurde ‘gesünderes’ Pflanzgut (das von Stecklingen abstammte) auf dem selben Feld wie einige der Proben der Marktware gepflanzt (Tab. 1). Die Feststellung des Inokulums oder der Krankheit wurde an Pflanzgutproben, an Pflanzen w?hrend des Wachstums und an Knollen der Nachkommenschaft zum Erntezeitpunkt genommen. Geerntete Knollen wurden auch einheitlich verletzt und bei 3°C und 10°C gelagert, mit oder ohne zweiw?chige Wundheilperiode bei 15°C. Nach 3–4 Monaten erfolgte die Feststellung des Krankheitsbefalls. Die Auswertung der Ergebnisse wurde durch Regression zwischen allen m?glichen Paaren der Ergebnisse für jede Krankheit durchgeführt, wobei jedes Jahr sowohl getrennt als auch alle Jahre kombiniert genommen wurden. Die Regressionen wurden auch für das ‘gesündere’ Erntegut, das mit der entsprechenden Marktware übereinstimmte, durchgeführt. Rhizoctonia solani wurde auf dem Pflanzgut und auf dem nachfolgenden Erntegut als Prozentbefall mit Sklerotien angegeben, der Myzelbelag auf der Knollenoberfl?che rund um die Augen wurde durch mikroskopische Untersuchung von Augenstücken festgestellt und das Auftreten von Weisshosigkeit wurde w?hrend des Wachstums gesch?tzt. Das durchschnittliche Auftreten von Inokulum oder Krankheitsbefall auf Marktware (Tab. 2) zeigte, dass 1975 der Befall der Augen am h?ufigsten war und dass 1971 und 1975 der Krankheitsbefall im Lager am gr?ssten war. ‘Gesünderes’ Pflanzgut hatte gew?hnlich weniger Pocken als der Durchschnitt der Marktware aber der Befall der Augen der Tochterknollen w?hrend des Wachstums und zur Ernte war gr?sser und auf gelagerten Knollen wurden mehr Pocken gefunden (Tab. 3). Unter den nassen Erntebedingungen 1974 traten mehr Pocken auf den bei 10°C gelagerten Knollen auf als auf den bei 3°C, aber es ergaben sich keine Unterschiede in anderen Jahren. Die Signifikanz der Regressionen zwischen den Erhebungen, die nach verschiedenen Methoden oder zu verschiedenen Zeitpunkten (Tab. 4) gemacht wurden und Diagramme der signifikanten Regressionen in einzelnen Jahren (Abb. 1) zeigten, dass makroskopische und mikroskopische Bestimmungen auf dem Pflanzgut (Abb. la) und Befall der Schale rund um die Augen und Weisshosigkeit w?hrend des Wachstums (Abb. 1d) in allen Jahren miteinander verbunden waren. Die Weisshosigkeit stand h?ufiger in Beziehung zum Ausmass des Pockenbesatzes des Pflanzgutes (Abb. 1b) als der Befall der Augen (Abb. 1c). Dies führt zu der Annahme, dass die meisten Stengelinfektionen vom Inokulum des Pflanzgutes ausgingen w?hrend der Befall der Schale rund um die Augen auch durch andere Inokulumquellen (z.B. den Boden) beeinflusst wurden. Der Befall der Augen zur Ernte stand in jedem Jahr in Beziehung zum Befall w?hrend des Wachstums (Abb. 1e) und in 4 Jahren stand das Ausmass des Pockenbesatzes auf gelagerten Knollen in Beziehung zum Augenbefall w?hrend des Wachstums und zur Ernte (Abb. 1f und 1g). Die mikroskopische Untersuchung w?hrend des Wachstums gibt daher eine vernünftige Sch?tzung des Krankheitsbefalls im Lager. Wenn die Erhebungen des ‘gesünderen’ Pflanzgutes mit denen gleichartiger Marktware verglichen wurden (Abb. 2), ergaben sich signifikante Verbindungen für den Augenbefall w?hrend des Wachstums und zur Ernte, für den Pockenbesatz auf gelagerten Knollen, aber nicht für die Weisshosigkeit. Dies weist auf eine Verbreitung des Inokulums, auf die Bedeutung der allgemeinen Bodenbeschaffenheit oder, wahrscheinlicher, eine gemeinsame Quelle des Inokulums, vielleicht im Boden hin.

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Résumé Une étude a été entreprise sur la variété King Edward, pour conna?tre l'incidence de différentes maladies. Cette étude s'est déroulée de 1971 à 1975 dans la région de Fenland en Angleterre Orientale. Chaque année, on a examiné entre 15 et 26 lots commerciaux; entre 1972 et 1975 des semences ‘plus saines’ (provenant de bouturage) ont été plantées dans le même champ que les lots commerciaux (tableau 1). Les estimations d'inoculum ou de maladie ont été faites sur des échantillons de tubercules de semence, sur des plantes en course de croissance, et sur les tubercules-fils à la récolte. Les tubercules-fils récoltés ont été également endommagés de manière uniforme et conservés à 3°C et 10°C, avec ou sans période initiale de cicatrisation des blessures de 2 semaines à 15°C. L'incidence de la maladie a été estimé après 3–4 mois. Les résultats ont été analysés par régressions entre toutes les paires possibles de données pour chaque maladie, en prenant séparément chaque année et toutes les années combinées. Les régressions ont aussi été faites à partir des estimations provenant des lots ‘plus sains’, et des estimations correspondantes provenant des lots commerciaux adjacents. L'estimation du rhizoctone a été faite par notation du pourcentage de sclérotes sur les tubercules de semence et sur les tubercules-fils en conservation. La colonisation de la peau, autour des yeux, par du mycelium deRhizoctonia solani a été déterminée par examen microscopique au niveau des yeux. L'incidence des nécroses sur tige a été estimée au cours de la croissance. L'incidence moyenne de l'inoculum ou de la maladie sur les lots commerciaux (tableau 2) a montré que la colonisation du tubercule au niveau des yeux a été plus fréquente en 1975, et que l'incidence de la maladie en cours de conservation a été plus forte en 1971 et 1975. Les tubercules de semence ‘plus saine’ ont eu moins de rhizoctone que la moyenne des lots commerciaux, mais la colonisation des tubercules-fils, au niveau des yeux pendant la période de croissance et à la récolte a été plus grande. On a également trouvé plus de sclérotes sur les tubercules conservés (tableau 3). En 1974, les conditions de récolte étant plus humides, il y avait plus de sclérotes sur les tubercules conservés à 10°C que sur ceux conservés à 3°C; mais, pour les autres années, il n'y avait aucune différence entre les traitements. La signification des régressions entre les estimations faites par différentes méthodes ou à différentes époques (tableau 4), et les graphiques relatifs aux régressions significatives pour chacune des années (Fig. 1) ont montré qu'il y avait toutes les années des relations entre les estimations macroscopiques et microscopiques sur la semence (Fig. 1 a), la colonisation de la peau autour des yeux et les nécroses des tiges en cours de végétation (Fig. 1d). Les nécroses sur tige étaient plus fréquemment en rapport avec les sclérotes portés par la semence (Fig. 1b) qu'ac la colonisation au niveau des yeux du tubercule (Fig. 1c). Les auteurs suggèrent donc que la plupart de la contamination de la tige provient de l'inoculum présent sur le tubercule de semence mais que la colonisation de la peau autour des yeux est également influencée par d'autres sources d'inoculum (par ex. le sol). Chaque année, la colonisation des yeux à la récolte était en relation avec celle en cours de croissance (Fig. 1c). Pour les 4 années, la quantité de sclérotes sur les tubercules conservés était en rapport avec l'incidence de la colonisation au niveau des yeux pendant la croissance et à la récolte (Figures 1f et 1g). Les estimations faites en cours de croissance donne donc une estimation correcte de l'incidence de la maladie en cours de conservation. Quand on compare les résultats des lots ‘plus sains’ et ceux des lots commerciaux adjacents, il y a des associations significatives pour la colonisation des yeux durant la croissance et à la récolte, pour les sclérotes sur les tubercules conservés, mais pas pour les nécroses sur tige. Ceci suggère la dispersion de l'inoculum, l'importance des conditions de sol ou plus vraisemblablement la présence d'une source commune d'inoculum au niveau du sol.

     

Détection moléculaire spécifique de la région vir du plasmide pTi d'Agrobacterium tumefaciens dans les sols et plants au Maroc

Le meilleur moyen de contrôle du crown gall ( Agrobacterium tumefaciens ) est la prévention et donc la détection de la bactérie pathogène dans les sols prévus pour les pépinières. Pour cela nous avons essayé une approche moléculaire utilisant la PCR pour caractériser le plasmide pTi par le couple des amorces spécifiques F14/F44 dans les sols de diverses régions marocaines. Cette technique de détection représente un indicateur potentiel d'avertissement sur l'état d'infection des sols et plants par A. tumefaciens qui permet ainsi de déclencher la lutte biologique par le NoGall, produit commercial australien, hébergeant l'antagoniste K₁₀₂₆.     

Variation of pathotypes and races and their correlations with clonal lineages in Verticillium dahliae

Understanding pathogenic variation in plant pathogen populations is key for the development and use of host resistance for managing verticillium wilt diseases. A highly virulent defoliating (D) pathotype in Verticillium dahliae has previously been shown to occur only in one clonal lineage (lineage 1A). By contrast, no clear association has yet been shown for race 1 with clonal lineages. Race 1 carries the effector gene Ave1 and is avirulent on hosts that carry resistance gene Ve1 or its homologues. The hypothesis tested was that race 1 arose once in a single clonal lineage, which might be expected if V. dahliae acquired Ave1 by horizontal gene transfer from plants, as hypothesized previously. In a diverse sample of 195 V. dahliae isolates from nine clonal lineages, all race 1 isolates were present only in lineage 2A. Conversely, all lineage 2A isolates displayed the race 1 phenotype. Moreover, 900‐bp nucleotide sequences from Ave1 were identical among 27 lineage 2A isolates and identical to sequences from other V. dahliae race 1 isolates in GenBank. The finding of race 1 in a single clonal lineage, with identical Ave1 sequences, is consistent with the hypothesis that race 1 arose once in V. dahliae. Molecular markers and virulence assays also confirmed the well‐established finding that the D pathotype is found only in lineage 1A. Pathogenicity assays indicated that cotton and olive isolates of the D pathotype (lineage 1A) were highly virulent on cotton and olive, but had low virulence on tomato.     

Serum antibody isotype responses of Fasciola-infected sheep and cattle to excretory and secretory products of Fasciola species

This study investigated the immunoglobulin isotype responses of sheep and cattle chronically infected with Fasciola hepatica and Fasciola gigantica to adult F. hepatica excretory/secretory products (Fh-ES) or F. gigantica excretory/secretory products (Fg-ES), respectively. An antibody enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (Ab-ELISA) was used to determine serum antibody (total Ig, IgG(1), IgM, IgG(2) and IgA) responses. At necropsy, the mean number of flukes recovered was lower in cattle than in sheep. All F. hepatica and F. gigantica infected sheep and cattle showed an increased total Ig levels from 3 to 4 weeks post-infection (wpi). Among isotypes IgG(1) was most dominant while IgM was the earliest (2 wpi) to be detected in both sheep and cattle infected with both F. hepatica and F. gigantica animals. IgG(2) response was early (2 wpi) in sheep infected by F. hepatica but there was no response in sheep infected with F. gigantica. There was a late and strong IgG(2) response in cattle infected with both flukes. The IgA isotype showed an early and a clear biphasic response in sheep with F. hepatica but was less pronounced in F. gigantica infected sheep. While IgA response to Fh-ES was noticed 5 wpi in F. hepatica infected cattle, it appeared much later (21 wpi) in those infected with F. gigantica. The dominance of IgG(1) isotype in infected sheep and cattle suggest an associated Th2 response. This early response to adult Fasciola spp. ES antigen suggests an early exposure to the antigen presumably through the cross-reacting ES products of juvenile flukes. There is clearly difference in IgG(2) isotype response in cattle (resistant) compared to sheep (susceptible). The late IgG(2) response in cattle may suggest late Th1 involvement in bovine cellular responses to adult Fh-ES/Fg-ES.     

Inductively coupled plasma mass‐spectrometric determination of platinum in excretion products of client‐owned pet dogs

Residues of antineoplastic drugs in canine excretion products may represent exposure risks to veterinary personnel, owners of pet dogs and other animal care‐takers. The aim of this study was to measure the extent and duration of platinum (Pt) excretion in pet dogs treated with carboplatin. Samples were collected before and up to 21 days after administration of carboplatin. We used validated, ultra‐sensitive, inductively coupled plasma‐mass spectrometry assays to measure Pt in canine urine, faeces, saliva, sebum and cerumen. Results showed that urine is the major route of elimination of Pt in dogs. In addition, excretion occurs via faeces and saliva, with the highest amounts eliminated during the first 5 days. The amount of excreted Pt decreased over time but was still quantifiable at 21 days after administration of carboplatin. In conclusion, increased Pt levels were found in all measured excretion products up to 21 days after administration of carboplatin to pet dogs, with urine as the main route of excretion. These findings may be used to further adapt current veterinary guidelines on safe handling of antineoplastic drugs and treated animals.     

Total mercury levels in selected human tissues, Idaho-1973-74(1,2)

Total mercury levels were determined in human tissues taken at autopsy from six hospitals in the three basic geographical areas of Idaho. Of the 242 specimens analyzed, 76 percent contained detectable mercury. Levels were compared with respect to the age, sex, and geographic residence of autopsied individuals. Mean levels detected were 1.04 ppm in kidney tissue, 0.34 ppm in liver, and 0.08 ppm in brain. Mean mercury levels for the three geographical areas were: southeastern Idaho, 0.22 ppm; southwestern Idaho, 0.80 ppm; and northern Idaho, 0.43 ppm. The relatively high means in southwestern Idaho specimens may be related to the preponderance of natural cinnabar deposits in that portion of the State. Mercury levels were higher in women than men for all tissues in both the southwestern and northern areas, but the reverse was true in the southeast. Data were compared with findings of other investigators in an attempt to arrive at background levels of total mercury residues in human tissues.     

Effect of allele combinations at Ppd-1 loci on durum wheat grain filling at contrasting latitudes

Flowering time is the most critical developmental stage in wheat, as it determines environmental conditions during grain filling. Thirty-five spring durum genotypes carrying all known allele variants at Ppd-1 loci were evaluated in fully irrigated field experiments for three years at latitudes of 41°N (Spain), 27°N (northern Mexico) and 19°N (southern Mexico). Relationships between weight of central grains of main spikes (W) and thermal time from flowering to maturity were described by a logistic equation. Differences in flowering time between the allele combination causing the earliest (GS100/Ppd-B1a) and the latest (Ppd-A1b/Ppd-B1a) flowering were 7, 20 and 18 days in Spain, northern Mexico and southern Mexico, respectively. Flowering delay drastically reduced the mean grain filling rate (R) and W at all sites. At autumn-sowing sites, an increase of 1°C in mean temperature during the first half of the grain filling period decreased W by 5.2 mg per grain. At these sites, W was strongly dependent on R. At the spring-sowing site (southern Mexico), W depended on both R and grain filling duration. Our results suggest that incorporating the allele combinations GS100/Ppd-B1a and GS105/Ppd-B1a (alleles conferring photoperiod insensitivity) in newly released varieties can reduce the negative effects of climate change on grain filling at the studied latitudes.     

Automated identification of sugar beet diseases using smartphones

Cercospora leaf spot (CLS) poses a high economic risk to sugar beet production due to its potential to greatly reduce yield and quality. For successful integrated management of CLS, rapid and accurate identification of the disease is essential. Diagnosis on the basis of typical visual symptoms is often compromised by the inability to differentiate CLS symptoms from similar symptoms caused by other foliar pathogens of varying significance, or from abiotic stress. An automated detection and classification of CLS and other leaf diseases, enabling a reliable basis for decisions in disease control, would be an alternative to visual as well as molecular and serological methods. This paper presents an algorithm based on a RGB‐image database captured with smartphone cameras for the identification of sugar beet leaf diseases. This tool combines image acquisition and segmentation on the smartphone and advanced image data processing on a server, based on texture features using colour, intensity and gradient values. The diseases are classified using a support vector machine with radial basis function kernel. The algorithm is suitable for binary‐class and multi‐class classification approaches, i.e. the separation between diseased and non‐diseased, and the differentiation among leaf diseases and non‐infected tissue. The classification accuracy for the differentiation of CLS, ramularia leaf spot, phoma leaf spot, beet rust and bacterial blight was 82%, better than that of sugar beet experts classifying diseases from images. However, the technology has not been tested by practitioners. This tool can be adapted to other crops and their diseases and may contribute to improved decision‐making in integrated disease control.     

Effects of copper and cadmium on uptake and leakage of K(+) in birch (Betula pendula) roots

Uptake and leakage experiments were performed to study the effects of copper and cadmium on K(+) fluxes in birch (Betula pendula Roth) roots. Labeled rubidium ((86)Rb(+)) was used as a tracer for K(+). Plants were pretreated with Cu or Cd (0, 2, 5 or 25 microM) for 0-300 min and then transferred to radiolabeled nutrient solution (150 microM K(+)) with or without 2,4-dinitrophenol (DNP) to separate the effects of heavy metal on active and passive K(+) influxes. Passive K(+) influx was decreased by pretreatment with Cu but was only slightly affected by pretreatment with Cd. Pretreatment with 2 microM Cu increased active K(+) influx, whereas pretreatment with 25 microM Cu decreased active K(+) influx and intermediate Cu concentrations (5 microM) did not affect active K(+) influx. The pretreatment effects of Cu on active and passive K(+) influxes increased with increasing pretreatment time. During the first hour, pretreatment with Cd decreased active K(+) influx with increasing pretreatment time, whereafter recovery began. To measure K(+) efflux, birch plants were loaded with (86)Rb(+) for 7 days before being exposed to Cu or Cd (0, 1, 3, 5 or 10 microM) in unlabeled nutrient solutions for 24 h. Net efflux of K(+) was measured as (86)Rb(+)-activity in the nutrient solutions 24 h after a heavy metal had been introduced. Efflux of K(+) increased with increasing Cu or Cd concentration in the unlabeled nutrient solution.The data indicate that Cu and Cd affected K(+) influx differently and that recovery mechanism(s), which were induced shortly after heavy metal introduction, counteracted the heavy-metal induced inhibition of active K(+) influx. Efflux of K(+) from plant roots over a 24-h period indicated that Cu and Cd had similar effects on K(+) efflux. There was no evidence of a recovery mechanism counteracting the heavy-metal-induced inhibition of K(+) efflux.