The measurement of stem toughness in marrow-stem kale using a simple laboratory penetrometer

The construction and use of a variable force penetrometer for measuring the woodiness of kale stems is described.The force required to cause penetration of the probe through the xylem tissue was found to bear a close relationship to estimates of quality based on in vitro digestibility determinations, crude fibre content and visual assessment of lignification in stained transverse sections of stems.     

THE EFFECT OF THE BIPYRIDYL HERBICIDES ON HILL COMMUNITIES AND THEIR ROLE IN THE IMPROVEMENT OF HILL GRAZING

The improvement of hill land is important to the national economy of the United Kingdom. An increase in the amount of enclosed productive land results in a greater stock-carrying capacity of a hill farm. Improvement is not always possible by conventional implements, and herbicides are being used to kill the old sward. The bipyridyl herbicides offer a means of destroying or modifying the indigenous vegetation. The application of low doses of paraquat or diquat to an association containing Molinia caerulea, Nardus sfricta and Festuca avina resulted in a change in equilibrium in favour of the fescues. The application of 2 lb paraquat per acre practically eliminates all grass species in a sward and it is then possible to establish desirable pasture species after lightly cultivating the dead surface litter.     

THE EFFECT OF FERTILIZER NITROGEN AND FREQUENCY OF DEFOLIATION ON YIELD OF GRASSLAND HERBAGE

The effects of 4 levels of applied nitrogen, ranging from nil to a maximum of 417 lb N/ acre/annum, in all combinations with 3 frequencies of defoliation, ranging from 2 to a maximum of 10 cuts per annum, on herbage production from a perennial ryegrass/ timothy/meadow fescue/white clover sward were measured. These treatments were operative for 2J years, and in a subsequent year the residual effect of cutting frequency was tested. Dry-matter yields of total herbage and of the clover fraction are quoted, together with N yields of total herbage. Yield response to N was higher than in some other experiments in the U. K. Cutting frequency had a very large effect and, in general, the longer the interval between cuts, the higher was the dry-matter (though not the N) yield. There was a marked interaction between cutting frequency and level of N: at the high cutting frequency, dry-matter yield increased linearly with increasing level of N; at the medium frequency, response tended to fall off at the highest level of N; at the low frequency, yield declined with increasing level of N beyond 139 lb N per acre per anum.     

Chemical Aids in Forest Fire Control

Progress in development of chemical aids in suppressing andretarding forest fires and in drying vegetation to facilitatecontrolled burning is reviewed briefly. The main part of thepaper describes exploratory trials in 1958–61, using arange of fire-retardant compounds for control of grass and heathfires. All chemicals tested were markedly superior to plainwater in checking fire spread. Ammonium phosphate solution,and ‘viscous water’ prepared using sodium alginate,were the most promising retardants tested, the latter beingthe more effective on heavier fuels such as heather and gorse.The costs and mechanics of use are discussed. Subject to operationaltrials, it is concluded that these chemicals could be of practicalvalue in checking the front and hottest parts of vegetationfires. Recent trials suggest that herbicides, of those testednotably Paraquat, may be used to desiccate grass vegetationto permit safe and rapid controlled burning during summer months.     

Further observations on the relationship between growth and yield in cocoa varieties

Yields of cocoa varieties are positively correlated with the rate of trunk diameter increase prior to commencement of bearing, the correlation persisting over the years and not deriving only from faster-growing varieties being first into bearing. However yields seem to be more closely correlated, over early and intermediate years, with the difference between the rate of trunk diameter increase while in bearing and that in the pre-bearing period. Over these years there is a negative relationship between yields and the current rates of trunk diameter increase. Once varieties are well into bearing, current trunk diameters have little influence on yield.The rate of trunk diameter increase slows down until, in later years of bearing, it is almost nil. Then yields may be very closely correlated with the rates of diameter increase before bearing, which in effect are the same as the reductions in increment rates.A difference between varieties of 1.2 cms. per annum in the pre-bearing rate of trunk diameter increase seems to be roughly equivalent to a difference in yielding capacity of 1,600 lbs. dry cocoa per acre per annum.     

On the occurrence of male sterility in West-European fodder and sugar beets

Since 1958 a search has been made for male sterile plants in fodder and sugar beet of West European origin. In some productive fodder beet varieties 11 male sterile plants were found in approx. 90,000 plants (0.01%), and in sugar beet varieties 32 in approx. 110,000 plants (0.03%).The conclusion may be that male sterility occurs more in sugar beet than in fodder beet, although it may also be explained by a different descent.     

Developments in Yield Control and Inventory in British Forestry

Forecasting timber production many years in advance has becomea problem of considerable importance in this country becauseof the need to co-ordinate the rapid increase in productionwith the establishment of new timber-using industries. Thispaper describes a change in emphasis in state forest WorkingPlan Inventory methods employed in the predominantly young,coniferous forests of Great Britain and is a development ofthe methods described in a previous paper (‘Problems ofYield Control and Inventory in British Forestry’—D.R. Johnston, 1960, Forestry, 33, 19–36). Total enumerationof the growing stock is no longer the main objective of forestinventory and the new approach is directed towards (a) assessmentof the productive potential of each subcompartment and (b) theintensive enumeration of sample or ‘index’ subcompartmentsinitially and at each re-enumeration as a check on growth predictionsand yield control.     

Row widths and inter-row cultivation of potatoes

Summary Investigations were started in 1957 by the National Institute of Agricultural Engineering into possible ways of simplifying the problem of the mechanical harvesting of potatoes by suitable cultivation techniques. “Bed” cultivation was tried in which 2, 3 or 4 rows were grouped together leaving a wide track for tractor and implement wheels. This method of growing potatoes was finally rejected as the yield of crop was adversely affected due to overcrowding in the middle rows of the “beds”. It was found that at least 550 square inches were required by each plant in the “bed”, and at this spacing many of the advantages of “bed” cultivation were lost. Difficulty was also experienced in covering the potatoes and preventing greening. Later work with 36 inch rows showed that the crop was not adversly affected by the wide rows in comparison to the conventional 28 inch row. but in an experiment on a heavy wet soil there was twice the amount of clod in these wide rows, due apparently to the greater total volume of soil and the inaccessibility of much of it to cultivation. Rotary inter-row cultivation using an experimental machine consisting of three pairs of contra-rotating spiders gave a third of the amount of clod as that of a set of lister bottoms (taken to represent mouldboard ridging). Present work is being concentrated on rotary inter-row work using a prototype commercial machine, and indications are that rotary interrow work in potatoes can be very effective in breaking up clods and giving a fine tilth in the ridge.

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Zusammenfassung Im Jahre 1957 wurden vom National Institute of Agricultural Engineering Untersuchungen eingeleitet über die M?glichkeit, das mechanische Ernten von Kartoffeln zu vereinfachen. Da das Ernten im wesentlichen darauf herauskommt, einige leicht verletzbare Knollen aus einem grossen Volumen an feinkornigem Boden, Erdklumpen und Steinen abzutrennen, muss eine Anbaumethode, wodurch entweder die Gesamtmenge des beim Roden zu bew?ltigenden Erdbodens herabgesetzt oder die Anzahl von Klumpen in den D?mmen verringert wird, das maschinelle Ernten auf einem weiteren Bereich von Bodenarten erm?glichen, als bisher. “Beetkultur”, wobei 2, 3 oder 4 Reihen nahe beieinander liegen und für die R?der der Schlepper und Ger?te ein breiter Streifen freigelassen wird (Abb. 1) ergab die inTabelle 1 gezeigten Resultate. Der Gesamtertrag an Kartoffeln aus den “Beeten” war geringer als bei den Kontrollreihen mit 28 Zoll Abstand, ausgenommen dort, wo die Pflanzendichte bedeutend h?her war (Behandlungen Nr 4 und 9). Eine weitere Analyse der Ergebnisse nach Knollengr?sse und Reihenzahl in den “Beeten”, wofürTabelle 2 typische Beispiele gibt, l?sst erkennen, dass die Kartoffeln in den mittleren Reihen der Becte nicht von den freien Fl?chen zwischen den Beeten Gebrauch machen konnten, zu dicht standen, und der Ertrag, namentlich an gr?sseren Knollen, geschm?lert wurde. Weitere Versuche im folgenden Jahr zeigten, dass selbst bei einem Reihenabstand von 22 Zoll in einem “Beet” von 72 Zoll die mittlere Reihe noch immer einen Minderertrag ergab (Tabelle 3). Reihen von 36 Zoll schienen jedoch keinen Nachteil zu erbringen. Untersuchungen über im Jahre 1959 über den Raumbedarf von Kartoffeln bei flachem Anbau in Quadraten zeigten, dass die Knollenanzahl (aller Gr?ssen) für jede Pflanze mit der Pflanzweite zunahm und dass mindestens 550 Quadratzoll je Pflanze für optimalen Ertrag erforderlich sind (Abb. 2). Aus diesen Ergebnissen liess sich schliessen, dass die Beetkultur keine befriedigende Methode für den Kartoffelbau ist. Eine weitere Schwierigkeit war das Zudecken der Kartoffeln und die Verhütung des Grünwerdens der Knollen. Ferner ergab sich, dass die Menge des zum Ernten zu hebenden Bodens wahrscheinlich eher gr?sser als geringer sein würde als bei der üblichen Reihenkultur. Weitere Untersuchungen waren daher auf einen Vergleich von 28- und 36-Zoll-Reihen und Zwischenreihenbearbeitung gerichtet. Zu diesem Zwecke wurde ein Satz Streichblecher und ein experimenteller Fr?senh?ufler (Abb. 3) verwendet. Die Ergebnisse (Tabelle 4) zeigten keine wesentliche Differenz in den Ertr?gen bei den Hauptbehandlungen; jedoch fanden sich dreimal soviel Klumpen in den mit dem Streichblech behandelten Reihen als in denen, welche mit dem Fr?senh?ufler bearbeitet worden waren (Tabelle 5). Dies wurde der st?rker zerkrümelnden Wirkung der Fr?sen gegenüber dem Streichblech zugeschrieben. In den weiten Reihen fanden sich zweimal soviel Klumpen wie in den engen, was sowohl dem gr?sseren Gesamtvolumen an Erde als der teilweisen Unzug?nglichkeit des Bodens im Falle der weiten Reihen zuzuschreiben sein dürfte. Im Jahre 1961 waren die Arbeiten haupts?chlich auf die Bodenbearbeitung bei 28-Zoll-Reihen mit der Fr?senh?ufler gerichtet, wobei ein Prototyp einer für kommerzielle Herstellung vorgesehenen Maschine benutzt wurde. Obwohl die Ergebnisse noch nicht vorliegen, besteht der Eindruck, dass die Fr?sbearbeitung sehr wirksam ist zur Zerkleinerung von Erdklumpen, selbst in den schwersten B?den.

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Résumé En 1957, le National Institute of Agricultural Engineering (Institut National de Technologie Agricole) entreprit des recherches visant à simplifier le problème de la récolte mécanique des pommes de terre. La récolte consistant en principe à séparer un petit nombre de tubercules. qui s’endommagent aisément, d’un volume important de sol fin, de mottes et de pierres, toute technique de culture capable de réduire la quantité totale de sol ramassé pour récolter les tubercules ou de réduire la grosseur et le nombre des mottes dans 1e rang doit permettre de pratiquer la récolte mécanique dans une plus grande gamme de sols que jusqu’ici. La culture en “planches” groupant 2, 3 ou 4 rangs et séparées d’un large espace pour le passage des roues de tracteurs et d’outils (Fig. 1) a donné les résultats que montre leTableau 1. Le rendement total en pommes de terre dans les “planches” était inférieur à celui des rangs ordinaires espacés de 28 pouces (culture témoin). excepté si le nombre de plantes était considérablement supérieur (traitements 4 et 9). Un classement plus poussé des résultats selon la grosseur des tubercules et le nombre de rangs par “planche”, dont leTableau 2 montre des exemples caractéristiques, fait voir que les plantes situées dans les rangs intérieurs des planches et ne pouvant pas utiliser les espaces non cultivés entre les planches étaient dépassées par celles des autres rangs et que leur production, de gros tubercules surtout, était inférieure. D’autres essais effectués l’année suivante ont démontré que même en rangs espacés de 22 pouces dans une planche de 72 pouces, le rendement du rang intérieur était encore réduit (Tableau 3), mais que ce rendement n’était en aucun cas inférieur si l’espacement était de 36 pouces. L’étude effectuée en 1959 concernant le besoin d’espace des pommes de terre plantées à plat en carrés a appris que le nombre de tubercules (de toutes grosseurs) par plante augmentait suivant l’espace disponible et qu’il faut au moins 550 pouces carrés par plante pour obtenir un rendement optimal en pommes de terre de consommation (Fig. 2). La conclusion de ces résultats fut que la culture en “planches” n’était pas une méthode satisfaisante de culture des pommes de terre. Il était en outre difficile de couvrir les pommes de terre et d’éviter le verdissement et l’on était d’avis que la quantité de sol à déplacer pour obtenir la récolte serait plut?t plus grande que plus petite qu’en cas de culture en rangs classique. C’est pourquoi il fut entrepris d’autres essais pour comparer la culture en rangs espacés de 28 et de 36 pouces et les fa?ons entre les rangs. A cette fin, on utilisa des ravales et une butteuse rotative expérimentale (Fig. 3). Les résultats indiqués auTableau 4 ne montrent aucune différence significative de rendement suivant les traitements principaux, mais il y avait trois fois autant de mottes dans les rangs traités avec les ravales que dans deux où l’on avait employé la butteuse rotative (Tableau 5). Ce fait est attribué à une meilleure pulvérisation du sol par l’instrument rotatif que par les ravales. Les rangs larges présentaient deux fois autant de mottes que les rangs serrés, ce qui est probablement la conséquence du plus grand volume de sol et de l’inaccessibilité d’une part importante de ce sol aux fa?ons dans le cas des rangs larges. En 1961, l’étude a été concentrée sur le traitement rotatif entre les rangs, avec un espacement de 28 pouces, en utilisant un prototype de machine commerciale. Bien que nous n’ayons pas encore de résultats définitifs. l’impression re?ue dans ces travaux est que le traitement rotatif pulvérise très efficacement les mottes, mêmc dans les sols les plus lourds.

     

Heritable necrosis of red storage cabbage

Research was carried out on heritable necrosis of red storage cabbage. Susceptibility to this type of necrosis depends on 1 incompletely recessive factor n. NN-plants always remain healthy, whereas the majority of the nn-plants become necrotic shortly after the harvest. A number of the Nn-plants also show (mostly weak) symptoms in the second half of the storage period. Minor genes may have an effect as well.Selection for resistance to necrosis should be carried out as late as possible, preferably at the end of the storage period.

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Samenvatting Onderzoek vond plaats over erfelijke necrose bij rode bewaarkool. De gevoeligheid voor dit verschijnsel wordt bepaald door 1 onvolledig recessieve factor n. N N-planten blijven steeds gezond, terwijl de meeste nn-planten korte tijd na het oogsten necrotisch worden. Bij een deel van de Nn-planten treden in de tweede helft van de bewaar-periode dat ook andere genen op resistentie tegen necrose nog een geringe invloed hebben.Voor de selectie op resistentie tegen necrose is hetvan belang dat deze zo laat mogelijk uitgevoerd wordt, dus bij voorkeur aan het eind van het bewaarseizoen.

     

THE EFFECT OF WHITE CLOVER AND NITROGENOUS FERTILIZER ON THE PRODUCTION OF A SWARD

Three-year leys of cocksfoot/white clover and cocksfoot alone were dressed with 0, 35, 105 and 210 lb N per acre every year to provide information on the effect of clover and N on production.
Data from the grass-alone swards allowed an estimate to be made of the effect of N on production at different cutting dates. This was compared with the effect of clover.
The effect of N was greater than that of clover in the mid- and late-season cuts. Clover made its greatest contribution, both directly and indirectly, at the first cut, taken in May.
Under very dry conditions (1959), N was more effective than clover in maintaining production and the proportional response was large in relation to that produced under moist conditions.
The results are discussed with reference to the present seasonal use of N on grassland and an argument is advanced for increasing its use in mid-season.