Organizational learning through participatory research: CIP and CARE in Peru

Participatory research (PR) has been analyzed and documented from different points of view, with emphasis on the benefits generated for farmers. The effect of PR on organizational learning has, however, received little attention. This paper analyzes the interaction between a research and a development institution, the International Potato Center (CIP) and CARE in Peru, respectively, and makes the case that PR can contribute to creating a collaborative learning environment among organizations. The paper describes the evolution of the inter-institutional collaborative environment between the two institutions for more than a decade, including an information-transfer period (1993–1996), an action-learning period (1997–2002), and a social-learning period (2003–2007). Several lessons learned from each period are described, as are changes in institutional contexts and stakeholders’ perceptions. The case shows that research and development-oriented organizations can interact fruitfully using PR as a mechanism to promote learning, flexibility in interactions, and innovation. Interactions foster the diffusion of information and the sharing of tacit knowledge within and between organizations, which in turn influences behavior. However, the paper also argues that long-term inter-organizational interactions are needed to facilitate learning, which can be used to influence the way organizations implement their interventions in a constantly changing environment.     

Use of crop residues for the control of Meloidogyne incognita under laboratory conditions

This laboratory study evaluates the biofumigant effect of different organic materials with the aim of developing non-chemical alternatives for the management of Meloidogyne incognita (Kofoid & White) Chitwood populations. Sources of organic material from the production system were selected with the aim of reducing agricultural residue accumulation problems as well as decreasing the costs due to the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. The selected materials were residues from pepper, strawberry, tomato and cucumber crops, orange juice industry residues, commercial manure and sheep manure, applied at different dosages. Two biofumigation assays were performed under laboratory conditions, using alkaline soils from the Torreblanca area (Murcia, Spain) and acidic soils from the Villa del Prado area (Madrid, Spain). The assays evaluated the effect of the treatments on M. incognita juveniles and other soil organisms, the nematode galling index on tomato roots (susceptible cv. Marmande) grown in the biofumigated soil and soil fertility parameters. The results showed that all biofumigant materials significantly decreased M. incognita populations and galling indices in tomato cv. Marmande. A greater effect was observed on galling indices when applying crop residues together with manure than with the residues alone. Biofumigation had a general beneficial effect on soil fertility, generally increasing nitrogen, organic carbon, pH and potassium levels, and also calcium levels when crop residues of pepper and strawberry were applied. There were no important variations in the number of saprophagous nematodes, dorylaimids and enchytraeids.     

Partial resistance to a Fusarium root disease in Egyptian white lupin landraces

A Fusarium sp. root pathogen of lupin is the causal agent of the most important disease that affects the cultivation of white lupin (Lupinus albus L.) in Egypt. The aim of our research was to investigate whether host resistance to Fusariumroot disease was available in Egyptian landraces ofLupinus albus. Five Fusarium isolates collected from white lupin samples in Egypt were tested with an Egyptian landrace and a French cultivar. The most aggressive isolate was used to screen an additional 15 Egyptian landraces, two cultivars released in Egypt after selection among landraces, one Polish cultivar, and two French cultivars. The assessment of host response to Fusarium was performed in a field, and under controlled conditions in a greenhouse pot experiment. Most landraces and the two Egyptian cultivars showed better resistance with good accordance between field and pot experiment. This experiment showed that Egyptian genetic resources of white lupin possess partial resistance to Fusarium root rot. Egyptian germplasm may be an alternative genetic source for incorporating partial resistance to Fusarium root rot into the breeding pools. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Effect of processing conditions on phytic acid, calcium, iron, and zinc contents of lime-cooked maize

Tortillas are made by cooking maize in a lime solution during variable times and temperatures, steeping the grain for up to 12 h, washing and grinding it to a fine dough, and cooking portions as flat cakes for up to 6 min. The effects of the main processing steps on the chemical composition, nutritive value, and functional and physicochemical characteristics have been areas of research. The present work evaluates the effect of lime concentration (0, 1.2, 2.4, and 3.6%) and cooking times (45, 60, and 75 min) on phytic acid retention of whole maize, its endosperm, and germ, as well as on the content of calcium, iron, and zinc on the same samples. The effects of steeping time and temperature and steeping medium on the phytic acid of lime-cooked maize were also studied. Finally, phytic acid changes from raw maize to tortilla were also measured. The results indicated that lime concentration and cooking time reduce phytic acid content in whole grain (17.4%), in endosperm (45.8%), and in germ (17.0%). Statistical analyses suggested higher phytic acid loss with 1.2% lime and 75 min of cooking. Cooking with the lime solution is more effective in reducing phytic acid than cooking with water. Steeping maize in lime solution at 50 degrees C during 8 h reduced phytic acid an additional 8%. The total loss of phytic acid from maize to tortilla was 22%. Calcium content increased in whole maize, endosperm, and germ with lime concentration and cooking and steeping times. The increase was higher in the germ than in the endosperm. The level, however, can be controlled if steeping of the cooked grain is conducted in water. Iron and zinc contents were not affected by nixtamalization processing variables but were affected in steeping.     

Antioxidant activity in hepatopancreas of the shrimp (Pleoticus muelleri) by electron paramagnetic spin resonance spectrometry

Free radical scavenging properties of hepatopancreas extracts of Pleoticus muelleri were evaluated by electron paramagnetic spin resonance spectrometry methods (EPR) against the stable 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical. The present study was carried out to characterize different physiological stages of the shrimp under environmental and nutritional stress, evaluating the effect on growth, survival, and functional morphology of the hepatopancreas. Feeding trials were carried out on juveniles (1 g initial weight) held in aquaria. Each diet, with different concentrations of vitamins A and E, was tested in triplicate groups during 25 days. The control groups were fed with fresh squid mantle and with a vitamin-free diet. For all of the diets, the extracts exhibited strong DPPH radical scavenging activity, suggesting that the tissue is a powerful natural antioxidant. Individuals fed with different concentrations of vitamin E showed the strongest effect on the DPPH radicals, reducing the DPPH radicals to 50%, after an incubation period of 3 min. In contrast, the extracts of control animals, fed with squid mantle, had the weakest antioxidant activity (4%). These data indicated that the presence of vitamin E in the diet can provide immediate protection against free radicals.     

Effect of drying of figs (Ficus carica L.) on the contents of sugars, organic acids, and phenolic compounds

Fresh figs were subjected to two different drying processes: sun-drying and oven-drying. To assess their effect on the nutritional and health-related properties of figs, sugars, organic acids, single phenolics, total phenolics, and antioxidant activity were determined before and after processing. Samples were analyzed three times in a year, and phenolic compounds were determined using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS). In figs, monomer sugars predominate, which is important nutritional information, and the content of sugars as well as organic acids in fresh figs was lower than in dried fruits. However, the best sugar/organic acid ratio was measured after the sun-drying process. Analysis of individual phenolic compounds revealed a higher content of all phenolic groups determined after the oven-drying process, with the exception of cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside. Similarly, higher total phenolic content and antioxidant activity were detected after the drying process. With these results it can be concluded that the differences in analyzed compounds in fresh and dried figs are significant. The differences between the sun-dried and oven-dried fruits were determined in organic acids, sugars, chlorogenic acid, catechin, epicatechin, kaempferol-3-O-glucoside, luteolin-8-C-glucoside, and total phenolic contents. The results indicate that properly dried figs can be used as a good source of phenolic compounds.     

Evaluation of the effect of roasting on the structure of coffee galactomannans using model oligosaccharides

The roasting process induces structural changes in coffee galactomannans. To know more about the reaction pathways that occur during the roasting of coffee, mannosyl and galactomannosyl oligosaccharides, having a degree of polymerization (DP) between 3 and 4, were used as models for galactomannans. These compounds were dry-heated under air atmosphere from room temperature to 200 °C, being maintained at 200 °C for different periods of time. The roasted materials were analyzed by mass spectrometry (ESI-MS, MALDI-MS, and ESI-MSn) and methylation analysis. In the MS spectra were identified several [M+Na]+ ions belonging to a series from a single hexose to 10 hexose residues ([Hex1-10+Na]+). The ions corresponding to their respective mono- and tridehydrated derivatives ([Hex2-10-H2O+Na]+ and [Hex2-10-3H2O+Na]+, respectively) were also identified. ESI-MSn as well as deuterium-labeling and alditol derivatization experiments showed that the tridehydrations occur at the reducing end of the oligosaccharides. The identification of (1→2)- and (1→6)-linked mannose residues and (1→4)-linked glucose residues by methylation analysis allowed the conclusion that transglycosylation and isomerization reactions occur during dry thermal processing.     

纤维素酶高产菌株选育研究进展

本文综述和对比了各类产纤维素酶微生物的特点;介绍了产酶发酵条件优化、诱变育种及纤维素酶基因克隆等方法的研究进展;展望了选育高产菌株的研究趋势。     

Evolution of agricultural extension and information dissemination in Peru: An historical perspective focusing on potato-related pest control

Multiplicity and continual change characterize the Peruvian agricultural knowledge and information system (AKIS), reflecting changes in the agricultural sector as a whole. The evolution of these changes can be traced back to the pre-Columbian era when a relatively stable and well-organized system based on indigenous knowledge prevailed. During colonial (1532–1821) and early Republican times (beginning 1821) several changes affecting the agricultural sector contributed to a weakening of indigenous knowledge systems. During the 20th century extension services provided by the government and a variety of private organizations began to play an important role in the dissemination of information, albeit in an erratic way. Since the 1970s the system increased in complexity with the emergence of non-governmental institutions. Today government participation is limited and there is a more important participation by a number of NGOs and private organizations. This diversity of actors using different approaches has generated disarray in the information system owing to the lack of coherent policies to guide the interaction among actors. This paper uses the case of potato pest control-related information to illustrate changes in local knowledge systems. It differentiates pest control based on indigenous knowledge, chemical control, and integrated pest management (IPM) and explains how changes in the system have influenced the use of these three types of information in AKIS. Currently, the coexistence of different types of potato pest control information promoted and used by diverse and usually unconnected sets of organizations and individuals presents a challenge and requires inter-institutional action guided by clear policies to promote sustainable agriculture. Oscar Ortiz is an agronomist who specializes in agricultural extension, knowledge systems, and participatory research. He holds an MSc degree in crop production and agricultural extension from the La Molina National Agrarian University of Peru and a PhD from the Agricultural Extension and Rural Development Department at the University of Reading, UK. He has worked for the National Agricultural Research Institute and Nestle Company in Peru and is currently Division Leader for Integrated Crop Management at the International Potato Center (CIP) in Lima. Since 2001 he has been a visiting lecturer at the Graduate School of the La Molina National Agrarian University of Peru. He is a member of the Latin American Potato Association and the International Society for Horticultural Science.