Some data on the occurrence of rattle virus at various depths in the soil and on its transmission

Summary Rattle virus can be present in the soil at great depth. In one of the experiments it was possible to detect the virus in a soil sample taken at 80–100 cm below the surface. In the experiments with field soils, infection occurred only in the presence of the vector, the nematode speciesTrichodorus pachydermus.After a starvation period of 36 days the nematodes were still capable of transmitting the virus to healthy tobacco plants. Thus the virus may retain its activity for a considerable length of time within the vector. The virus is also transmitted to potato plants by the nematodes.The presence of nematodes is not always essential in the transmission of rattle virus. When an infected and a healthy tobacco plant were put in one pot containing sterilized soil, the above ground portions of the two plants being kept separate, the virus could be detected in the healthy plant after some time. It is not yet known whether this mode of transmission requires a fusion of the roots of the two plants.Samenvatting De grootste diepte, waarop het ratelvirus nog in de grond aanwezig kan zijn, wordt bepaald door de bodemgesteldheid ter plaatse. In één van de proeven kon het virus nog worden aangetoond in een grondmonster, afkomstig van de laag 80–100 cm beneden maaiveld (tabel 1). In een tweede proef met monsters van een geheel andere type grond was het virus tot 50 cm diepte aanwezig (tabel 2). Infectie van planten in grondmonsters van verschillende diepte trad bij deze proef alleen op indien de overbrenger, de alltjessoortTrichodorus pachydermus, aanwezig was.De aaltjes waren na een hongerperiode van 36 dagen nog zeer goed in staat het virus over te brengen naar gezonde tabaksplanten (tabel 3). Dit maakt het waarschijnlijk, dat ze hiertoe ook in staat zijn na een hongerperiode van langere duur.De wortels van gezonde aardappelplanten var. Sientje werden met ratelvirus geïnfecteerd door aaltjes, afkomstig uit grondmonsters van een perceel waar veel stengelbont bij aardappelen optrad.Niet altijd zijn aaltjes nodig voor overdracht van ratelvirus. Wanneer een ratelviruszieke en een gezonde tabaksplant samen in een pot met gesteriliseerde grond werden geplaatst waarbij de bovengrondse delen van elkaar gescheiden werden gehouden, kon het virus enige tijd later in de gezonde plant worden aangetoond (tabel 4). Daarentegen trad geen infectie van een gezonde tabaksplant op als deze tezamen met een ratelzieke plant op watercultuur werd gekweekt (tabel 4). De mogelijkheid bestaat dus, dat het virus overgaat van een wortel van een zieke plant naar die van een gezonde als deze in de grond contact met elkaar maken. Of hiervoor vergroeiingen van wortels van beide planten nodig zijn is niet bekend.     

Evolution of a microbial acetyltransferase for modification of glyphosate: a novel tolerance strategy

N-Acetylation is a modification of glyphosate that could potentially be used in transgenic crops, given a suitable acetyltransferase. Weak enzymatic activity (k(cat) = 5 min(-1), K(M) = 1 mM) for N-acetylation of glyphosate was discovered in several strains of Bacillus licheniformis (Weigmann) Chester by screening a microbial collection with a mass spectrometric assay. The parental enzyme conferred no tolerance to glyphosate in any host when expressed as a transgene. Eleven iterations of DNA shuffling resulted in a 7000-fold improvement in catalytic efficiency (k(cat)/K(M)), sufficient for conferring robust tolerance to field rates of glyphosate in transgenic tobacco and maize. In terms of k(cat)/K(M), the native enzyme exhibited weak activity (4-450% of that with glyphosate) with seven of the common amino acids. Evolution of the enzyme towards an improved k(cat)/K(M) for glyphosate resulted in increased activity toward aspartate (40-fold improved k(cat)), but activity with serine and phosphoserine almost completely vanished. No activity was observed among a broad sampling of nucleotides and antibiotics. Improved catalysis with glyphosate coincided with increased thermal stability.     

Animal evolution and the molecular signature of radiations compressed in time

The phylogenetic relationships among most metazoan phyla remain uncertain. We obtained large numbers of gene sequences from metazoans, including key understudied taxa. Despite the amount of data and breadth of taxa analyzed, relationships among most metazoan phyla remained unresolved. In contrast, the same genes robustly resolved phylogenetic relationships within a major clade of Fungi of approximately the same age as the Metazoa. The differences in resolution within the two kingdoms suggest that the early history of metazoans was a radiation compressed in time, a finding that is in agreement with paleontological inferences. Furthermore, simulation analyses as well as studies of other radiations in deep time indicate that, given adequate sequence data, the lack of resolution in phylogenetic trees is a signature of closely spaced series of cladogenetic events.     

Indication of transmission of BVDV in the absence of persistently infected (PI) animals

In a closed dairy herd all animals were tested serologically for BVD antibodies twice a year during a 6-year period. Seroconversions were detected every year. At the start of the 6-year monitoring period blood samples from all animals were examined by virus isolation. No persistently infected animals were identified. Entire-herd culturing for BVDV was repeated at the end of the third year. Samples from all newborn female calves were examined for BVDV at approximately 2 months of age and older. During the entire monitoring period BVDV was isolated in one newborn calf twice with an interval of 3 weeks. The mother had seroconverted during pregnancy. Five congenitally infected non-PI calves were identified, the mothers of which had seroconverted during late pregnancy; repeated sampling proved the calves to remain seropositive in a seronegative age cohort. Although direct and indirect introduction of BVDV from outside the herd can never be excluded it seems highly unlikely in this closed herd. The findings indicate that transmission of BVDV can take place over a long period of time in the absence of PI animals. This observation may have serious consequences for control programmes.     

Induction of inflammatory host immune responses by organisms belonging to the genera Chlamydia/Chlamydophila

Chlamydia/Chlamydophila are a family of intracellular gram-negative bacteria that infect their hosts primarily via mucosal epithelia. Chronic disease associated with bacterial persistence, inflammation and tissue damage are common sequelae of infection with these organisms. Human epithelial cell lines respond to infection by releasing pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines such as interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-8, and upregulating the expression of mRNA encoding Iκ-B, the endogenous inhibitor of NF-κB. However, Iκ-B is not upregulated in response to bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The failure of epithelial cells to respond to LPS is associated with the absence of surface expression of CD14. Identification of the components of Chlamydia/Chlamydophila that can induce pro-inflammatory mediators coupled with the mechanisms by which epithelial cells detect infection and respond accordingly will advance the development of preventative strategies.     

Advances in mucosal vaccination

Pathogens that enter the body via mucosal surfaces face unique defense mechanisms that combine the innate barrier provided by the mucus layer with an adaptive response typified by the production and transepithelial secretion of pathogen-specific IgA. Both the measurement and induction of mucosal responses pose significant challenges for experimental and practical application and may need to be adapted to the species under study. In particular, for livestock, immunization procedures developed in small rodent models are not always effective in large animals or compatible with management practices. This paper reviews the latest advances in our understanding of the processes that lead to secretory IgA responses and how this relates to the development of mucosal immunization procedures and adjuvants for veterinary vaccines. In addition, it highlights the complex interactions that can take place between the pathogen and the host's immune response, with specific reference to Chlamydia/Chlamydophila infections in sheep.     

Principles of surgery for the cancer patient

The appropriate diagnosis and treatment of patients with cancer are most correctly made through the cooperative efforts of a team of specialists, including an oncologist, surgeon, and pathologist. Preoperative determination of the tumor type and histologic grade, extent of the mass, and the patient's health status will result in the most comprehensive course of action. Diagnosis and staging of the tumor are paramount to preparing an optimal treatment plan. To ensure the best possible outcome, the preoperative, surgical, and postoperative plan should be customized to the individual cancer patient and their owner while following given guidelines. This article describes the basic principals for evaluation and operative management of the surgical oncology patient.     

Three cases of canine bile peritonitis with mucinous material in abdominal fluid as the prominent cytologic finding

Background: Bile peritonitis is a severe, nonseptic inflammatory response to bile in the peritoneal cavity. It may result from generalized or localized leakage of bile due to spontaneous rupture of the biliary system or as a complication of biliary tract inflammation, obstruction, manipulation, or trauma. Cytologically, bile in abdominal fluid appears as golden-green granular pigment.
Objective: The purpose of this report is to describe the atypical cytologic features of abdominal fluid in 3 dogs with bile peritonitis.
Methods: As part of a diagnostic workup, abdominal fluid was obtained from 3 dogs with bile peritonitis and analyzed. In 2 dogs, fluid bilirubin concentration was determined and Hall's bile stain, Alcian blue-periodic acid-Schiff stain, and Mayer's mucicarmine stain were applied to direct smears of the fluid.
Results: Acellular mucinous fibrillar material in clumps and lakes was the prominent cytologic finding in the abdominal fluid from all 3 dogs. Bile pigment was not observed. Fluid from the 3 dogs contained increased numbers of inflammatory cells, predominantly neutrophils. Total protein concentration ranged from 2.9 to 5.6 g/dL. Fluid total bilirubin concentration was greater than twice that of the concurrent serum bilirubin concentration. Based on results of the special stains, the amorphous material was positive for mucosubstances, but was negative for bilirubin. In all dogs, bile peritonitis originated from a rent in the common bile duct.
Conclusions: Bile peritonitis with fibrillar mucinous material in abdominal fluid has not been described previously in dogs. The material was similar to "white bile" observed in humans and experimentally in dogs as a sequela to extrahepatic biliary tract obstruction. When mucinous material is observed in abdominal fluid from dogs and the fluid bilirubin concentration is greater than twice the serum bilirubin concentration, rupture of the extrahepatic biliary tract should be suspected.