Hericium erinaceus mushroom extracts protect infected mice against Salmonella Typhimurium-Induced liver damage and mortality by stimulation of innate immune cells

The present study investigated the antibacterial effect of four extracts from the fruitbody of the edible medicinal mushroom Hericium erinaceus (hot water extract, HWE; microwave/50% ethanol extract, MWE; acid extract, ACE; and alkaline extract, AKE) against murine salmonellosis. The extracts had no effect on Salmonella ser. Typhimurium growth in culture. Nor were the extracts toxic to murine macrophage cells, RAW 264.7. HWE and MWE stimulated uptake of the bacteria into the macrophage cells as indicated by increased colony-forming unit (CFU) counts of the contents of the lysed macrophages infected with Salmonella Typhimurium for 30 and 60 min. Two hours postinfection, the bacterial counts increased in the macrophages, but 4 and 8 h postinfection the HWE- and MWE-treated cells showed greater activity against the bacteria than the control. HWE- and MWE-treated noninfected macrophages had altered morphology and elevated inducible nitric oxide (NO) synthase (iNOS) mRNA expression. In the presence of S. Typhimurium, iNOS mRNA expression was further increased, accompanied by an increase in NO production. Histology assays of the livers of mice infected with a sublethal dose (1 × 10(4) CFU) of S. Typhimurium showed that HWE and MWE, administered by daily intraperitoneal injection, protected against necrosis of the liver, a biomarker of in vivo salmonellosis. The lifespans of mice similarly infected with a lethal dose of S. Typhimurium (1 × 10(5) CFU) were significantly extended by HWE and MWE. β-Glucan, known to stimulate the immune system, was previously found to be present in high amounts in the active extracts. These results suggest that the mushroom extract activities against bacterial infection in mice occur through the activation of innate immune cells.     

Effects of long-term exposure to enriched CO<Subscript>2</Subscript> on the nutrient-supplying capacity of a grassland soil

Altered soil nutrient cycling under future climate scenarios may affect pasture production and fertilizer management. We conducted a controlled-environment study to test the hypothesis that long-term exposure of pasture to enriched carbon dioxide (CO₂) would lower soil nutrient availability. Perennial ryegrass was grown for 9 weeks under ambient and enriched (ambient + 120 ppm) CO₂ concentrations in soil collected from an 11.5-year free air CO₂ enrichment experiment in a grazed pasture in New Zealand. Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) fertilizers were applied in a full factorial design at rates of 0, 12.5, 25 or 50 kg N ha⁻¹ and 0, 17.5 or 35 kg P ha⁻¹. Compared to ambient CO₂, under enriched CO₂ without P fertilizer, total plant biomass did not respond to N fertilizer, and tissue N/P ratio was increased indicating that P was co-limiting. This limitation was alleviated with the lowest rate of P fertilizer (17.5 kg P ha⁻¹). Plant biomass in both CO₂ treatments increased with increasing N fertilizer when sufficient P was available. Greater inputs of P fertilizer may be required to prevent yield suppression under enriched CO₂ and to stimulate any response to N.     

Surface‐applied insecticide treatments for quarantine control of Japanese beetle,Popillia japonica Newman (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae), larvae in field‐grown nursery plants

BACKGROUND: Japanese beetles, Popillia japonica Newman, are a quarantine challenge for nursery shipments from infested to non‐infested states. Marathon (imidacloprid) and Discus (imidacloprid + cyfluthrin) are approved preharvest nursery treatments (US Domestic Japanese Beetle Harmonization Plan; DJHP). This study evaluated approved and non‐approved (acephate, carbaryl, clothianidin, dinotefuran, halofenozide, thiamethoxam, trichlorfon) preharvest treatments, optimal rates (labeled 1×, 0.3–0.75× or 2–3×) and optimal timings (June, July, August and September) to control early‐instar (grubs) P. japonica in field nurseries. RESULTS: Most insecticides effectively reduced grub densities, except for acephate, carbaryl and trichlorfon. Clothianidin, thiamethoxam and halofenozide provided grub control equivalent to DJHP standards during most years. Across all test years and timings, percentage grub reductions were: Marathon (1×: 59.2–100; 3×: 78.9–100), Discus (1×: 60.7–100), clothianidin (1×: 96.1–100; 3×: 97.4–100), thiamethoxam (1×: 75.0–100; 3×: 80.0–100), halofenozide (1×: 70.0–100; 3×: 90.0–100) and dinotefuran (1×: 13.2–88.2; 3×: 71.1–93.4). CONCLUSIONS: July application was more consistent and effective than other timings, and higher rates (2× and 3×) did not generally improve grub control. Overall, clothianidin, thiamethoxam and halofenozide (and dinotefuran applied in August) were equivalent to current DJHP standards. These insecticides may be suitable for DJHP Category 2 states, potentially lowering grower costs. Copyright © 2009 Society of Chemical Industry     

Comet 81P/Wild 2 under a microscope

The Stardust spacecraft collected thousands of particles from comet 81P/Wild 2 and returned them to Earth for laboratory study. The preliminary examination of these samples shows that the nonvolatile portion of the comet is an unequilibrated assortment of materials that have both presolar and solar system origin. The comet contains an abundance of silicate grains that are much larger than predictions of interstellar grain models, and many of these are high-temperature minerals that appear to have formed in the inner regions of the solar nebula. Their presence in a comet proves that the formation of the solar system included mixing on the grandest scales.     

Effects of dietary ratio of n-6 to n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on immunoglobulins,cytokines, fatty acid composition,and performance of lactating sows and suckling piglets

This experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of dietary ratios of n-6:n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) on the performance of lactating sows and their piglets. Thirty pregnant Landrace sows were assigned to one of three treatments from d 108 of gestation until weaning (26–29 d) and were fed diets containing different ratios of n-6:n-3 PUFA including 3:1, 9:1 and 13:1. The effects on sow and litter production traits were examined together with an assessment of sow body condition. No differences were detected among the treatments for the daily feed intake of sows or changes in sow weight and back-fat levels during lactation (P > 0.05). Litter size at d 14 and d 21 were tended to increase in 3:1 treatment compared with 9:1 and 13:1 treatments (P < 0.10). Litter weight gain (1.77 kg/d) from d 0 to d 14 was tended to increase in 9:1 groups compared with the other two treatments (P < 0.10). A significant difference was observed for the content of α -linolenic acid, total n-3 PUFA, and the ratio of n-6:n-3 PUFA in the colostrum, milk, and piglets plasma (P < 0.01). The effects of different ratios of n-6:n-3 PUFA in sow diets on colostrum, milk, and piglet plasma immunoglobulin concentrations are studied. No difference was observed among treatments in the concentrations of IgM, and IgA in colostrum (P > 0.05). A great significant difference for IgG concentration was observed among 3 group in colostrum. A great significant difference for IgA, and IgM (P < 0.01) concentrations in piglet plasma at d14 and a significant difference for IgG(P < 0.05) was observed at d14. Furthermore, at d 21 of lactation, piglet plasma IgG and IgA concentration were greater in 3:1 compared with 13:1 group (P < 0.01).In summary, the current study demonstrated that altering the ratio of n-6:n-3 PUFA in lactating sow diet had an effect on the immune component including immunoglobulin and cytokines, and it tended to increase the litter average daily gain and improve the immune status of piglets when dietary ratio of n-6:n-3 PUFA was 9:1.     

Attribution of explanatory factors for change in soil organic carbon density in the native grasslands of Inner Mongolia,China

The variation in soil organic carbon density(SOCD) has been widely documented at various spatial and temporal scales. However, an accurate method for examining the attribution of explanatory factors for change in SOCD is still lacking. This study aims to attribute and quantify the key climatic factors, anthropogenic activities, and soil properties associated with SOCD change in the native grasslands of Inner Mongolia, China, by comparing data between the 1960s and the 2010s. In 2007 and 2011, we resampled 142 soil profiles which were originally sampled during 1963–1964 in the native grasslands of Inner Mongolia. SOCD was determined in A horizon(eluvial horizon) of the soil. We selected the explanatory factors based on a random forest method, and explored the relationships between SOCD change and each of the explanatory factors using a linear mixed model. Our results indicated that the change in SOCD varied from the east to the west of Inner Mongolia, and SOCD was 18% lower in the 2010s than in the 1960s. The lower SOCD in the 2010s may primarily be attributed to the increasing in mean annual water surface evaporation, which explained approximately 10% and 50% of the total variation and explainable variation in the change in SOCD, respectively. The sand content of the soil is also a significant explanatory factor for the decrease in SOCD, which explained about 4% and 21% of the total variation and explainable variation in the change in SOCD, respectively. Furthermore, the collection of quantitative information on grazing frequency and duration may also help to improve our understanding of the anthropogenic factors that govern the change in SOCD.     

Enhancing the effectiveness of biological control programs of invasive species through a more comprehensive pest management approach

Invasive species are one of the greatest economic and ecological threats to agriculture and natural areas in the US and the world. Among the available management tools, biological control provides one of the most economical and long‐term effective strategies for managing widespread and damaging invasive species populations of nearly all taxa. However, integrating biological control programs in a more complete integrated pest management approach that utilizes increased information and communication, post‐release monitoring, adaptive management practices, long‐term stewardship strategies, and new and innovative ecological and genetic technologies can greatly improve the effectiveness of biological control. In addition, expanding partnerships among relevant national, regional, and local agencies, as well as academic scientists and land managers, offers far greater opportunities for long‐term success in the suppression of established invasive species. In this paper we direct our recommendations to federal agencies that oversee, fund, conduct research, and develop classical biological control programs for invasive species. By incorporating these recommendations into adaptive management strategies, private and public land managers will have far greater opportunities for long‐term success in suppression of established invasive species. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry     

Lower soil nitrous oxide emissions by a high lipid genetically modified perennial ryegrass line compared to its wild type

We describe an experiment where cattle urine was applied at a rate of 420 kg N ha⁻¹, equivalent to 10 L m⁻², to mesocosm swards of a high lipid genetically modified perennial ryegrass line (HME) and its wild type (WT). We measured N pools and fluxes in the plant and soil, soil microbial populations and N₂O production. HME plants produced 21% greater biomass than WT (p = .02), resulting in greater N uptake (27% higher in HME, p = .05). Urine N recovery in total plant biomass during the experiment in HME and WT swards were 54.7% and 33.9% respectively. The nitrification potential of soil was significantly lower (p = .01) in HME than WT. Partial least square-discriminant analysis using microbial gene abundance data indicated that HME and WT plant growth induced distinct microbial populations in the soil. These differences in plant soil microbial interactions between HME and WT swards resulted in significantly lower N₂O emissions from the HME sward. Total N₂O emissions over the 4 weeks after urine application was 38% lower (p < .03) in HME swards than in WT swards. The next step in this work is to identify the specific changes in HME traits that drive the reduction in N₂O.     

Reblausbekämpfung und Rebaufbaumaßnahmen

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