Policies for the vaccination of cats and dogs in New Zealand veterinary practices

AIMS: To determine current practices and attitudes towards vaccination of dogs and cats of veterinarians in New Zealand; the methods used for informing clients on which vaccines to use, and the preferred site for vaccination of cats.

METHODS: A postal questionnaire was sent to all 483 listed veterinary practices in New Zealand during February 2012. Some questions were specific to pet dogs, cats, or working farm dogs. Responses were categorised according to practice type and geographical region of the respondent. Factors associated with respondent recommendation of annual vaccination with modified live viral (MLV) vaccines were examined using logistic regression analysis. Vaccines that were considered to be essential for every animal were defined as core; those that may be recommended for animals whose location or lifestyle placed them at risk, were defined as non-core.

RESULTS: There were 204 useable returns, equivalent to a response rate of 42.2%, distributed across the country. Annual vaccination with MLV vaccines of dogs was recommended by 54/198 (27.3%) respondents, and of cats by 107/181 (59.1%) respondents. Factors associated with the recommendation of annual administration of MLV vaccines to dogs included being a companion animal practice, a desire for policies on vaccination to be left to individual clinics, and having one veterinarian in the practice. Administration of the final vaccination for puppies was recommended at ≥14 weeks old by 55/185 (29.7%) respondents, and for kittens at ≥13 weeks old by 42/183 (23%) respondents. Of respondents that administered MLV vaccines annually, 62/103 (60.2%) believed reducing the frequency of vaccination would reduce income, and 52/103 (50.5%) considered it would have a negative effect on animal health. Advice to enable clients to decide which non-core vaccines were administered was given by 181/199 (91%) respondents. Factors considered when recommending a vaccine included consideration of risk to individual patients (190/203; 93.6%), requirements of boarding kennels/catteries (165/203; 81.3%) and clinic vaccination policy (142/203; 70%). The preferred site for administering MLV vaccines to cats was the dorsal neck or inter-scapular region (137/198; 69.2%). Amongst respondents, 18 wanted disease surveillance information to allow for truly informed decisions to be made about vaccination.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Veterinarians can now compare their own vaccination practices and attitudes with those of veterinarians nationally, and internationally. There is a need for national surveillance information and for continued education of the public and commercial kennel and cattery owners for optimal vaccination strategies to be developed.     

The occurrence of summer mastitis in Jutland (Denmark) in relation to meteorological factors

Data for incidence of summer mastitis in 14 veterinary practices in Jutland (Denmark) were related to meteorological factors using statistical methods. A correlation and regression analysis showed that summer mastitis occurred earlier in years with high temperature and precipitation in early summer. The annual number of cases markedly increased over the years 1953 to 1980. This increase was described by applying a linear increase with with year to a logarithmic transformation of the annual incidence.Analysis of 10-day incidences from the veterinary practices and daily incidence from a test site at St. Vildmose (Jutland) showed that incidence of summer mastitis could be related to temperature and wind velocity within the previous 10 days. High temperature and low wind velocity in this period increase the incidence. This indicates that the incubation period of summer mastitis is at maximum about 10 days. The activity of the fly (Hydrotaea irritans Fall), which acts as mechanical vector for the bacteria is influenced by temperature and wind velocity. This may explain the variation in incidence of summer mastitis during the season and from year to year.     

Consequences of climate change for European agricultural productivity, land use and policy

This paper reviews the knowledge on effects of climate change on agricultural productivity in Europe and the consequences for policy and research. Warming is expected to lead to a northward expansion of suitable cropping areas and a reduction of the growing period of determinate crops (e.g. cereals), but an increase for indeterminate crops (e.g. root crops). Increasing atmospheric CO₂ concentrations will directly enhance plant productivity and also increase resource use efficiencies.

In northern areas climate change may produce positive effects on agriculture through introduction of new crop species and varieties, higher crop production and expansion of suitable areas for crop cultivation. Disadvantages may be an increase in the need for plant protection, the risk of nutrient leaching and the turnover of soil organic matter. In southern areas the disadvantages will predominate. The possible increase in water shortage and extreme weather events may cause lower harvestable yields, higher yield variability and a reduction in suitable areas for traditional crops. These effects may reinforce the current trends of intensification of agriculture in northern and western Europe and extensification in the Mediterranean and southeastern parts of Europe.

Policy will have to support the adaptation of European agriculture to climate change by encouraging the flexibility of land use, crop production, farming systems etc. In doing so, it is necessary to consider the multifunctional role of agriculture, and to strike a variable balance between economic, environmental and social functions in different European regions. Policy will also need to be concerned with agricultural strategies to mitigate climate change through a reduction in emissions of methane and nitrous oxide, an increase in carbon sequestration in agricultural soils and the growing of energy crops to substitute fossil energy use. The policies to support adaptation and mitigation to climate change will need to be linked closely to the development of agri-environmental schemes in the European Union Common Agricultural Policy.

Research will have further to deal with the effect on secondary factors of agricultural production, on the quality of crop and animal production, of changes in frequency of isolated and extreme weather events on agricultural production, and the interaction with the surrounding natural ecosystems. There is also a need to study combined effects of adaptation and mitigation strategies, and include assessments of the consequences on current efforts in agricultural policy to develop a sustainable agriculture that also preserves environmental and social values in the rural society.     

Anther Culture Response in Perennial Ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.)

20 diploid clones from 7 varieties, and 10 tetraploid clones from 3 varieties of Lolium perenne were tested in replicated anther culture experiments. Embryos or calluses, were obtained from all clones, and plants were regenerated from all clones except one. The total yield of plants (albino and green plants) ranged from 0 to 61 plants per 100 cultured anthers among genotypes, and there was a general tendency for tetraploic genotypes to be more responsive. Viable green plants were obtained from 5 diploid and 7 tetraploid clones representing 2 and 3 varieties, respectively. Their origin from reduced pollen was confirmed by a haploid chromosome number in some regenerants and by homozygosity for isozyme loci in spontaneously chromosome doubled plants produced from heterozygous diploid donor plants. A large number of the plants were successfully established in the soil. For most donor genotypes, green plants were rare exceptions, but two diploic clones consistently produced 2.3 and 3.8 green plants per 100 cultured anthers, respectively. Estimates of variance components from replicates with greenhouse and field-grown donor plants showed that genotypes accounted for about 73 per cent of the total variation in yield of embryos/calluses, while only 14—15 per cent of the total variation was due to replicates. Hence at present, emphasis should be placed on die selection of high-response genotypes in material of high agronomic potential.     

Impact of introduced honey bees on native pollination interactions of the endemic Echium wildpretii (Boraginaceae) on Tenerife, Canary Islands

The aim of this study was to investigate effects of introduced honey bees (Apis mellifera) on native pollination interactions of Echium wildpretii ssp. wildpretii in the sub-alpine desert of Tenerife. We selected two study populations, one dominated by honey bees, while the other was visited by many native insects. During peak activity period of insects, nectar was nearly completely depleted in flowers of the first, but not the latter population. Thus, a high abundance of honey bees may have suppressed visitation by native animals due to exploitative competition. Honey bees stayed longer and visited more flowers on the same inflorescence than native bees, thus potentially promoting self-pollination of the plants. Level of seed set and viability was similar in the two study populations. However, we cannot rule out long-term changes in genetic population structure due to changes in gene-flow patterns caused by foraging behaviour of honey bees vs. native flower-visitors.     

Exchangeable potassium and potassium balances in organic crop rotations on a coarse sand

Abstract. Crops on sandy soils (<5% clay) are exposed to K deficiency due to the small release and high leaching losses of K. Reliable tools are needed to improve the K management in cropping systems with limited K input, such as organic farming where import of nutrients are restricted according to the EC regulations. We investigated K balances and exchangeable K (K_exch) changes in an organic crop rotation experiment. Potassium leaching decreased from 42 kg ha⁻¹ in 1998/99 to 21 kg ha⁻¹ in 2000/01 as an average of a crop rotation (spring barley, grass-clover, winter wheat and pea/barley) with manure application and without catch crops. In the same period, spring K_exch decreased from 5.0 to 3.0 mg K 100 g soil⁻¹ (0–20 cm). The retention of the straw K left in the field after harvest increased with decreasing levels of K_exch. The cereal crops did not respond to K application but in the pea/barley mixture the pea yield increased by 46%. The concordance between measured K balances and changes in K_exch was weak. Exchangeable K is suitable as a tool for K management on a rotational basis, and a K_exch above 3 mg 100 g soil⁻¹ in the autumn should be avoided to minimize K leaching.     

Multielemental fingerprinting as a tool for authentication of organic wheat, barley, faba bean, and potato

The multielemental composition of organic and conventional winter wheat, spring barley, faba bean, and potato was analyzed with inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) and -mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). The crops were cultivated in two years at three geographically different field locations, each accommodating one conventional and two organic cropping systems. The conventional system produced the highest harvest yields for all crops except the nitrogen-fixing faba bean, whereas the dry matter content of each crop was similar across systems. No systematic differences between organic and conventional crops were found in the content of essential plant nutrients when statistically analyzed individually. However, chemometric analysis of multielemental fingerprints comprising up to 14 elements allowed discrimination. The discrimination power was further enhanced by analysis of up to 25 elements derived from semiquantitative ICP-MS. It is concluded that multielemental fingerprinting with semiquantitative ICP-MS and chemometrics has the potential to enable authentication of organic crops.     

C and N turnover in structurally intact soils of different texture

The turnover of native and applied C and N in undisturbed soil samples of different texture but similar mineralogical composition, origin and cropping history was evaluated at −10 kPa water potential. Cores of structurally intact soil with 108, 224 and 337 g clay kg⁻¹ were horizontially sliced and ¹⁵N-labelled sheep faeces was placed between the two halves of the intact core. The cores together with unamended treatments were incubated in the dark at 20 °C and the evolution of CO₂-C determined continuously for 177 d. Inorganic and microbial biomass N and ¹⁵N were determined periodically. Net nitrification was less in soil amended with faeces compared with unamended soil. When adjusted for the NO₃-N present in soil before faeces was applied, net nitrification became negative indicating that NO₃-N had been immobilized or denitrified. The soil most rich in clay nitrified least N and ¹⁵N. The amounts of N retained in the microbial biomass in unamended soils increased with clay content. A maximum of 13% of the faeces ¹⁵N was recovered in the microbial biomass in the amended soils. CO₂-C evolution increased with clay content in amended and unamended soils. CO₂-C evolution from the most sandy soil was reduced due to a low content of potentially mineralizable native soil C whereas the rate constant of C mineralization rate peaked in this soil. When the pool of potentially mineralizable native soil C was assumed proportional to volumetric water content, the three soils contained similar proportions of potentially mineralizable native soil C but the rate constant of C mineralization remained highest in the soil with least clay. Thus although a similar availability of water in the three soils was ensured by their identical matric potential, the actual volume of water seemed to determine the proportion of total C that was potentially mineralizable. The proportion of mineralizable C in the faeces was similar in the three soils (70% of total C), again with a higher rate constant of C mineralization in the soil with least clay. It is hypothesized that the pool of potentially mineralizable C and C rate constants fluctuate with the soil water content.