Nomenclature and genetic relationships of apples and pears from Terceira Island

Heritage apple (Malus domestica Borkh. hybrids) and pear (Pyrus communis L. hybrid) trees grow in villages throughout Terceira Island, Azores, Portugal. Some of these pears have different names but similar morphology. The objective of this study was to determine synonymy, homology, and phylogeny of apples and pears from Terceira and to examine potential relationships of the island pears with standard apples and pears of Portuguese or American descent. Nine apple microsatellite markers were used to determine genetic relationships. Distance- and parsimony-based cluster analysis grouped these genotypes into separate apple and pear clades. The Terceira apples were divided into two clades: the maçā and the reineta-reinette. Among the 17 heritage apple genotypes, seven unique accessions were identified and four groups of synonyms, or possibly clones, were detected including: ‘Reineta Agosto’ and ‘Reineta Verde’ from Altares; ‘Reineta Castanha’ and ‘Reineta Verde Miuda’; ‘Maçā Pêra,’ ‘Maçā Calhau’, ‘Pêro Branco’ from Salga and from Terra-Chā and ‘Maçā Marmelo’; and the five genotypes ‘Maçā Sao Joao’, ‘Malápio Rosa’, ‘Maçā Gaspar’, ‘Maçā Branca’ and ‘Maçā Pato’. In addition, two homonyms were detected. ‘Pêro Vermelho’ from Terra Chā was a separate genotype from a tree from Doze Ribeiras of the same name, but Pêro Branco from Terra Chā appears to be a clone that can be distinguished by an additional allele at CH1F07a from a tree with that name from Salga. One pair of apple clones, ‘Reineta Agosto’ and ‘Reineta Verde’ from Altares appear to be derived from an unreduced gamete of ‘Golden Delicious.’ Another apple genotype ‘Maçā Acida’ could be a sibling of the ‘Maçā Pêra’ clonal group. Other tested standard apples from the US genebank were unrelated to Terceira genotypes. Of the seven heritage pears, five unique genotypes and one pair of synonyms were detected. ‘Pêra Papo Pintassilgo’ from Raminho and ‘Pêra Vermelha’ from the nursery of Serviço de Desenvolvimento Agario da Terceira (SDAT) were synonyms. ‘Passans du Portugal’ was related to ‘Pêra Cabaca’ but other standard pears from the US genebank were unrelated to Terceira genotypes. Future studies will include additional apple and pear cultivars from other Islands of the Azores and continental Portugal, and wild Asian species to further explore genetic relationships.     

Salinity and sodicity effects on respiration and microbial biomass of soil

An understanding of the effects of salinity and sodicity on soil carbon (C) stocks and fluxes is critical in environmental management, as the areal extents of salinity and sodicity are predicted to increase. The effects of salinity and sodicity on the soil microbial biomass (SMB) and soil respiration were assessed over 12weeks under controlled conditions by subjecting disturbed soil samples from a vegetated soil profile to leaching with one of six salt solutions; a combination of low-salinity (0.5dSm⁻¹), mid-salinity (10dSm⁻¹), or high-salinity (30dSm⁻¹), with either low-sodicity (sodium adsorption ratio, SAR, 1), or high-sodicity (SAR 30) to give six treatments: control (low-salinity low-sodicity); low-salinity high-sodicity; mid-salinity low-sodicity; mid-salinity high-sodicity; high-salinity low-sodicity; and high-salinity high-sodicity. Soil respiration rate was highest (56–80mg CO₂-C kg⁻¹ soil) in the low-salinity treatments and lowest (1–5mg CO₂-C kg⁻¹ soil) in the mid-salinity treatments, while the SMB was highest in the high-salinity treatments (459–565mg kg⁻¹ soil) and lowest in the low-salinity treatments (158–172mg kg⁻¹ soil). This was attributed to increased substrate availability with high salt concentrations through either increased dispersion of soil aggregates or dissolution or hydrolysis of soil organic matter, which may offset some of the stresses placed on the microbial population from high salt concentrations. The apparent disparity in trends in respiration and the SMB may be due to an induced shift in the microbial population, from one dominated by more active microorganisms to one dominated by less active microorganisms.     

Patterns of SSR variation in bread wheat (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Triticum aestivum</Emphasis> L.) seeds under ex situ genebank storage and accelerated ageing

Maintaining seed viability and germplasm integrity is a challenging task in conservation of plant genetic resources, as seeds under storage will lose viability and genetic changes will occur. Attempt was made to analyze the patterns of genetic changes in wheat germplasm under ex situ genebank storage and accelerated ageing treatments. A set of 16 naturally aged wheat accessions under ex situ genebank storage since 1994 were sampled. Four recently regenerated wheat accessions were selected, four random seed samples were chosen from each accession, and three of them were exposed to three different accelerated ageing treatments. These 32 seed samples in two germplasm sets displayed a range of germination rates from 4 to 98 %. Thirty-seven microsatellite markers representing 21 wheat chromosomes were applied to screen 12 seeds of each sample and 449 SSR alleles were scored. Large SSR variation was found in each germplasm set. There was 73.1 % of the total SSR variation present among the naturally aged samples and 78.2 % present among the accelerated ageing samples. Several analyses for genetic association consistently revealed no clear genetic separations among samples of high or low germination rates in both germplasm sets. Samples under different accelerated ageing treatments did not show much genetic differentiations from the original sample of each accession. Mantel tests revealed non-significant associations between SSR variability and sample germination rates for both germplasm sets. These findings are useful for understanding seed deterioration under different ageing conditions and suggest that genome-wide SSR variability may not provide sensitive markers for the monitoring of wheat seed viability.     

Factors Affecting the Growth of Microalgae on Blackwater from Biosolid Dewatering

This paper discusses the possibility of including the culturing of microalgae within a conventional wastewater treatment sequence by growing them on the blackwater (BW) from biosolid dewatering to produce biomass to feed the anaerobic digester. Two photobioreactors were used: a 12 L plexiglas column for indoor, lab-scale tests and a 85 L plexiglas column for outdoor culturing. Microalgae (Chlorella sp. and Scenedesmus sp.) could easily grow on the tested blackwater. The average specific growth rate in indoor and outdoor batch tests was satisfactory, ranging between 0.14 and 0.16 day^?1. During a continuous test performed under outdoor conditions from May to November, in which the off-gas from the combined heat and power unit was used as the CO₂ source, an average biomass production of 50 mgTSS L^?1 day^?1 was obtained. However, statistical analyses confirmed that microalgal growth was affected by environmental conditions (temperature and season) and that it was negatively correlated with the occurrence of nitrification. Finally, the biochemical methane potential of the algal biomass was slightly higher than that from waste sludge (208 mLCH₄ gVS^?1 vs. 190 mLCH₄ gVS^?1).     

A Greener UV and Peroxide-Based Chemical Oxygen Demand Test

Water quality assessment typically includes the determination of chemical oxygen demand (COD) by oxidation of organic matter with Cr(VI) in an acidic medium followed by digestion. Unfortunately, the required reagents are harmful and the reaction times are rather long. We investigated earlier the use of H₂O₂ as a more environmentally friendly oxidizing agent to replace the hazardous chromates. In the present study, we have furthered this possibility by incorporating the use of H₂O₂ in the presence of UV light. A protocol has been devised and tested with standards and real samples that replaces toxic Cr(VI), halves the amount of silver sulfate required, and greatly reduces the necessary reaction time, thus yielding a faster and more environmentally sound method.     

Studying the Effects of Two Various Methods of Composting on the Degradation Levels of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Sewage Sludge

The research comprised of studying the effect composting sewage sludge with sawdust and vermicomposting with earthworm Eisenia fetida has on the degradation of 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Raw rural sewage sludge prior composting was more contaminated with PAHs than urban sewage sludge, in both cases exceeding EU cutoff limits of 6 mg/kg established for land application. Dibenzo[a,h]anthracene (DBahAnt), acenaphtylene (Acy) and indeno[1,2,3-c,d]pyrene (IPyr) were predominant in rural sewage sludge, whilst the urban sewage sludge contained the highest concentrations of benzo[b]fluoranthene (BbFl), benzo[k]fluoranthene (BkFl) and indeno[1,2,3-c,d]pyrene (IPyr). Thirty days of composting with sawdust has caused a significant reduction of 16 PAHs on average from 26.07 to 4.01 mg/kg (84.6%). During vermicomposting, total PAH concentration decreased on average from 15.5 to 2.37 mg/kg (84.7%). Vermicomposting caused full degradation of hydrocarbons containing 2 and 6 rings and significant reduction of PAHs with 3 aromatic rings (94.4%) as well as with 5 aromatic rings (83.2%). The lowest rate of degradation (64.4%) was observed for hydrocarbons with 4 aromatic rings such as fluoranthene, benzo(a)anthracene, chrysene and pyrene. On the other hand, the highest level of degradation was determined for PAHs with 2 rings (100%), 3 rings (88%) and 6 aromatic rings in the molecule (86.9%) after composting with sawdust. Acenaphthene and pyrene were found to be the most resistant to biodegradation during both composting methods.     

Biochar-induced changes in soil properties affected immobilization/mobilization of metals/metalloids in contaminated soils

Purpose

Remediation of metal contaminated soil with biochar is attracting extensive interest in recent years. Understanding the significance of variable biochar properties and soil types helps elucidating the meticulous roles of biochar in immobilizing/mobilizing metals/metalloids in contaminated soils.

Materials and methods

Six biochars were produced from widely available agricultural wastes (i.e., soybean stover, peanut shells and pine needles) at two pyrolysis temperatures of 300 and 700 °C, respectively. The Pb-, Cu-, and Sb-contaminated shooting range soils and Pb-, Zn-, and As-contaminated agricultural soils were amended with the produced biochars. The mobility of metals/metalloids was assessed by the standard batch leaching test, principal component analysis and speciation modeling.

Results and discussion

The changes in soil properties were correlated to feedstock types and pyrolysis temperatures of biochars based on the principal component analysis. Biochars produced at 300 °C were more efficient in decreasing Pb and Cu mobility (>93 %) in alkaline shooting range soil via surface complexation with carboxyl groups and Fe-/Al-minerals of biochars as well as metal-phosphates precipitation. By contrast, biochars produced at 700 °C outperformed their counterparts in decreasing Pb and Zn mobility (100 %) in acidic agricultural soil by metal-hydroxides precipitation due to biochar-induced pH increase. However, Sb and As mobility in both soils was unfavorably increased by biochar amendment, possibly due to the enhanced electrostatic repulsion and competition with phosphate.

Conclusions

It is noteworthy that the application of biochars is not equally effective in immobilizing metals or mobilizing metalloids in different soils. We should apply biochar to multi-metal contaminated soil with great caution and tailor biochar production for achieving desired outcome and avoiding adverse impact on soil ecosystem.

     

Changes in organic carbon content and its physical and chemical distribution in paddy soils cultivated under different fertilisation practices

Purpose

Chemical protection facilitates soil organic carbon (SOC) sequestration and stabilisation due to a strong chemical binding with mineral surfaces and metal ions (e.g. iron [Fe], aluminium [Al] and calcium [Ca]). However, there is not much information regarding the role of chemical protection in SOC stabilisation in paddy soils, particularly in terms of the specific forms of organo-mineral complexes such as Fe-, Al- and Ca-bonded OC.

Materials and methods

We sampled paddy soils at the 0–20 cm soil layer from a long-term field experiment (initiated in 1981) conducted under humid subtropical conditions in China, which has five fertilisation treatments (i.e. control treatment without fertiliser [CK], chemical fertiliser only [CF], green manure [GM], Straw and Manure) with equivalent nutrient inputs (i.e. N, P₂O₅ and K₂O at the rates of 135–67.5–135 kg ha^?1, respectively, for both early and late rice) except CK. We determined the chemical binding forms of SOC and the associated soil properties in the particulate fraction (PF, >53 μm) and the mineral-associated fraction (MAF, <53 μm), which were obtained using a low-energy ultrasonic dispersion procedure, of a paddy soil in the long-term fertilisation experiment.

Results and discussion

Iron- and Al-bonded OC (Fe/Al-OC) was the dominant fraction and made up 55–70% of the total SOC in the paddy soil, while Ca-bonded OC (Ca-OC) was only a minor fraction (<4%). The Fe/Al-OC was mainly allocated in the MAF (52–67%), indicating that the chemical protection of SOC occurred mostly in the finer particle fractions. Long-term application of organic amendments increased the contents of bulk SOC by 27–34% (P < 0.05), of Fe/Al-OC by 9–16% and of Ca-OC by 35–83% (P < 0.05), whereas the sole application of chemical fertiliser had no significant effects on SOC contents of the paddy soil compared with the treatment without fertiliser inputs. Both amorphous Fe and Al extracted by ammonium oxalate (Fe_ox and Al_ox) showed significant correlations with Fe/Al-OC (r = 0.52 and 0.78, respectively), but Al_ox appeared to have a greater influence on C stabilisation in the paddy soil.

Conclusions

These results demonstrated that the dominant chemical binding forms of SOC in the paddy soils were Fe/Al-OC and amorphous Fe/Al oxyhydrates, especially amorphous Al, contributed mostly to the chemical stabilisation of SOC.

     

Characteristics of Nitrogen Loss through Surface-Subsurface Flow on Red Soil Slopes of Southeast China

Soil nitrogen (N) loss related to surface flow and subsurface flow (including interflow and groundwater flow) from slope lands is a global issue. A lysimetric experiment with three types of land cover (grass cover, GC; litter cover, LC; and bare land, BL) were carried out on a red soil slope land in southeast China. Total Nitrogen (TN) loss through surface flow, interflow and groundwater flow was observed under 28 natural precipitation events from 2015 to 2016. TN concentrations from subsurface flow on BL and LC plots were, on average, 2.7–8.2 and 1.5–4.4 times greater than TN concentrations from surface flow, respectively; the average concentration of TN from subsurface flow on GC was about 36–56% of that recorded from surface flow. Surface flow, interflow and groundwater flow contributed 0–15, 2–9 and 76–96%, respectively, of loss load of TN. Compared with BL, GC and LC intercepted 83–86% of TN loss through surface runoff; GC intercepted 95% of TN loss through subsurface flow while TN loss through subsurface flow on LC is 2.3 times larger than that on BL. In conclusion, subsurface flow especially groundwater flow is the dominant hydrological rout for N loss that is usually underestimated. Grass cover has the high retention of N runoff loss while litter mulch will increase N leaching loss. These findings provide scientific support to control N runoff loss from the red soil slope lands by using suitable vegetation cover and mulching techniques.     

Zirconium-Modified Activated Sludge as a Low-Cost Adsorbent for Phosphate Removal in Aqueous Solution

A highly effective zirconium-modified activated sludge (Zr(IV)-AS) adsorbent was prepared from activated sludge and applied to remove phosphate from aqueous solutions by batch and column experiments. Characterized results revealed that zirconium was successfully loaded onto the activated sludge (AS), and the specific surface area and pore volume were substantially improved after zirconium loading on the AS. Zr(IV)-AS exhibited a high adsorption affinity for phosphate and the maximum adsorption amount was 27.55 mg P·g^?1 at 25 °C. Adsorption isotherms of phosphate could be described by the Langmuir model, and the adsorption kinetics were well described by the pseudo-second-order model. Phosphate adsorption on Zr(IV)-AS increased monotonically with decreasing solution pH. The presence of SO₄^2? in water resulted in slightly decreased phosphate adsorption on the adsorbent even at a high concentration (25 mmol/L), and a greater influence of HCO₃^? on adsorption could be ascribed to the increased solution pH with the addition of the HCO₃^?. Column adsorption experimental results showed that the adsorbent has excellent phosphate adsorption properties and that the effluent can meet the requirement of phosphorus in the national wastewater discharge standard of China. Phosphate-saturated Zr(IV)-AS can be effectively desorbed in 0.1 mol L^?1 NaOH solution, and the regenerated adsorbent still possessed the high capacity. The adsorption between the adsorbent and the phosphate is due to the electrostatic interaction and anionic exchange at the surface of the Zr(IV)-AS. Furthermore, this approach provides a possibility of treating wastewater with waste and has the potential for industrial applications for the removal of phosphate from wastewater.