Genome-wide association analysis identifies loci for type 2 diabetes and triglyceride levels

New strategies for prevention and treatment of type 2 diabetes (T2D) require improved insight into disease etiology. We analyzed 386,731 common single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in 1464 patients with T2D and 1467 matched controls, each characterized for measures of glucose metabolism, lipids, obesity, and blood pressure. With collaborators (FUSION and WTCCC/UKT2D), we identified and confirmed three loci associated with T2D-in a noncoding region near CDKN2A and CDKN2B, in an intron of IGF2BP2, and an intron of CDKAL1-and replicated associations near HHEX and in SLC30A8 found by a recent whole-genome association study. We identified and confirmed association of a SNP in an intron of glucokinase regulatory protein (GCKR) with serum triglycerides. The discovery of associated variants in unsuspected genes and outside coding regions illustrates the ability of genome-wide association studies to provide potentially important clues to the pathogenesis of common diseases.     

Fragmentation and flow regulation of river systems in the northern third of the world

Seventy-seven percent of the total water discharge of the 139 largest river systems in North America north of Mexico, in Europe, and in the republics of the former Soviet Union is strongly or moderately affected by fragmentation of the river channels by dams and by water regulation resulting from reservoir operation, interbasin diversion, and irrigation. The remaining free-flowing large river systems are relatively small and nearly all situated in the far north, as are the 59 medium-sized river systems of Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Denmark. These conditions indicate that many types of river ecosystems have been lost and that the populations of many riverine species have become highly fragmented. To improve the conservation of biodiversity and the sustainable use of biological resources, immediate action is called for to create an international preservation network of free-flowing river systems and to rehabilitate exploited rivers in areas that lack unaffected watercourses.     

Influence of added ammonium sulphate on the leaching of aluminium,nitrate and sulphate —A laboratory experiment

Relationships between the concentrations of sulphate, nitrate and Al were studied in leachates from reconstructed soil profiles of a previously N fertilized Haplic Podzol. Half of the profiles were covered with the grassDeschampsia fexuosa (Trin.), and the other half were not. The soil profiles were subjected to different N loads, in the form of ammonium sulphate. The doses were 0.5 mmol ammonium-N during the first part of the experiment and 1.0 mmol ammonium-N during the later part. Uptake of N by the vegetation almost completely eliminated the effects of added ammonium, even when the soil profile was strongly nitrifying. Fertilizer treatment caused nitrate to leach from the non-covered soil profiles, although there was a net retention of N. The concentration of Al in leachates was positively correlated with nitrate. Fertilizer treatment increased the proportion of inorganic monomeric Al in leachates. Most sulphate retention seemed to take place in the O horizon. In the presence of vegetation sulphate concentration was enhanced to a greater degree than could be explained from differences in evapotranspiration estimated from the Cl^?/S0₄ ^2? ratio in the leachates. Soil N dynamics on a forest clear-cutting are discussed with reference to the present findings.     

Forest biogeochemistry interactions among greenhouse gases and N deposition

Interactions between N deposition and the fluxes between atmosphere and forest ecosystems of the greenhouse gases CO₂, CH₄ and N₂O are examined. It is argued that forest productivity has increased due to increased N deposition since the industrial revolution in areas where N has been limiting to forest production. It is shown that most boreal and large parts of temperate forests growing on mineral soils are N limited still today. The increased above ground production due to improved N availability seems to result in an equal sized build-up of the C pool of at least boreal forest soils, in the first place in the humus layer. This is explained by an increased litter production of needles and roots and a decreased decomposition rate in an N rich environment. N deposition thus contributes to reduce the atmospheric levels of CO₂. In areas where N is still limiting forest growth, a decreased N deposition, thus, logically, would result in decreased forest productivity and act as a source of increased CO₂ levels to the atmosphere. Increased N deposition results in decreased CH₄ oxidation of forest mineral soils and thus, acts to increase the greenhouse effect. However, this mechanism expressed as greenhouse contribution probably is small in relation to the reduction caused by increased CO₂ fixation. From most forest mineral soils there seem to be small rates of N₂O formation independently of deposition rates.     

From Molecules to Products: Some Aspects of Structure–Function Relationships in Cereal Starches

In this review, starch behavior is described from molecules in solution to the use of starch in products. The determination of molecular characteristics with asymmetrical flow field‐flow fractionation is described, and the behavior of starch in binary solutions is discussed. The organization of starch in granules and the changes in organization during gelatinization and retrogradation are then described. The role of starch retrogradation in bread staling is described in some detail, and the influence of water mobility and distribution is discussed in relation to amylopectin retrogradation. Finally, the use of starch as emulsifier is described. Hydrophobically modified starch is one possibility for emulsion stabilization; also, the starch granule as such can be used to stabilize emulsions (so‐called Pickering emulsions).     

Distribution of sulphur fractions in lysimeters previously treated with sulphuric acid,NPK fertilizer and a combination of acid and fertilizer

The retention of applied ³⁵S was studied in a lysimeter experiment, in which the lysimeters, consisting of soil columns with intact field and groundlayer vegetation, had previously been treated with either sulphuric acid, NPK or a combination of sulphuric acid and NPK.³⁵S was applied as Na₂³⁵SO₄ to all lysimeters in an amount corresponding to 2 kg S ha^?1, 3 months before the termination of the experiment. Of the applied ³⁵S, 4.7 ± 1.6% (the error term showing the standard error of the mean) was leached from the lysimeters; ³⁵SO₄^2?, was preferentially sorbed in the upper part of the B horizon, >61% being sorbed in the B horizon as a whole. The influence of previous treatments was seen in SO₄^2? content in the B horizon and also in the SO₄^2? concentrations in the leachates from the lysimeters. Sorption of ³⁵SO₄^2? was enhanced by the acid treatment in the A₀ and A₁/A₂ horizons. Ratios between water-extractable SO₄^2? and KCl-extractable SO₄^2? varied from 0.88 in the A₁/A₂ horizon to 0.46 in the lower part of the B horizon, indicating a preferential sorption of less available SO₄^2? fractions in that part of the soil.Significant positive correlations between soil organic carbon and various sulphur fractions, both labelled and unlabelled, indicated the importance of biological S transformations in the A₀ and A₁/A₂ horizons.Positive correlations between KCl-extractable Al and KCl-extractable SO₄^2? were found in the B horizon. Equilibrium calculations suggested that the SO₄^2? activity and Al³⁺ activity in leachates from control and acidified lysimeters were within the stability fields of basaluminite (Al₄(OH)₁₀SO₄), activities in leachates from the latter group of lysimeters, also being close to jurbanite (Al(OH)SO₄).     

Evaluation of a covalent mix-enzyme linked immunosorbent assay for screening of Salmonella antibodies in pig serum

In this study, a commercial Salmonella covalent mix-enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for serological detection of Salmonella infection in swine was evaluated by comparing it with the conventional fecal culture method and inter-laboratory proficiency testing, using a panel of sera tested in 5 laboratories from Europe and North America. Comparison with culture results showed that 88.5% of 26 culture-positive animals were ELISA positive, as were 55% of 60 animals from 2 culture-positive pig herds. Of 90 animals from 2 high health farms with no clinical symptoms of salmonellosis, 98.9% tested negative. The interlaboratory comparison study found a kappa value of 0.9 between our laboratory (using an automated system) and the manufacturer laboratory (using the manual method). Comparison of ELISA results from all 5 participating laboratories showed very good to excellent agreement, between 85% and 97.5%. We found this assay to be useful for the screening of antibodies against Salmonella present in swine serum. It agrees well with bacterial cultures, is reproducible, sensitive, specific, repeatable, and suitable for automation.