Identifying areas of high-value vertebrate diversity for strengthening conservation

Identifying areas with relevant features of biodiversity is useful to rank priorities for strengthening the design of well-sited natural protected areas and to optimize resource investment in conservation. This study provides decision makers critical tools for highlighting pieces of land worthy of conservation in Spain. We studied four taxa—amphibians, reptiles, nesting birds and mammals—in a 50 × 50 km grid (n=259 cells). We used five criteria for identifying areas of high-value diversity: species richness, rarity, vulnerability, a combined index of biodiversity, and a Standardized Biodiversity Index that measured all four taxa together. As far as we know, the combined index of biodiversity and the Standardized Biodiversity Index are original. Areas of high-value diversity were defined as those cells within the 15% top segment of ranked values for the different criteria. Congruence of areas of high-value diversity for taxa pairs was moderate to low, and averaged 38.5% for areas of high-value diversity based on the combined index of biodiversity. The performance based on the average proportion of threatened species excluded from areas of high-value diversity followed the rank combined index of biodiversity=rarity (0.3%) > vulnerability (9.9%) > species richness (13.8%). The areas of high-value diversity identified according to the Standardized Biodiversity Index included all amphibian and mammal species, all but one reptile species (categorized as rare) and all but six bird species (three of which were categorized as threatened). About 70% of the areas of high-value diversity identified based on the Standardized Biodiversity Index included natural protected areas. However, they average only 274.6 km², thus occupying a small fraction of the areas of high-value diversity, and there is no guarantee that the species found in an area of high-value diversity site will be present in its protected fraction. Consequently, we urge managers of natural protected areas to conduct diversity surveys. We also urge that additional natural protected areas be established to include the gap of 30% of areas of high-value diversity not currently protected. We took an step for biodiversity conservation planning in the studied region, and discuss the usefulness of maps of areas of high-value diversity for conservation, ecological restoration, and environmental impact assessment and mitigation.     

Behavioural indicators of welfare in farmed fish

Behaviour represents a reaction to the environment as fish perceive it and is therefore a key element of fish welfare. This review summarises the main findings on how behavioural changes have been used to assess welfare in farmed fish, using both functional and feeling-based approaches. Changes in foraging behaviour, ventilatory activity, aggression, individual and group swimming behaviour, stereotypic and abnormal behaviour have been linked with acute and chronic stressors in aquaculture and can therefore be regarded as likely indicators of poor welfare. On the contrary, measurements of exploratory behaviour, feed anticipatory activity and reward-related operant behaviour are beginning to be considered as indicators of positive emotions and welfare in fish. Despite the lack of scientific agreement about the existence of sentience in fish, the possibility that they are capable of both positive and negative emotions may contribute to the development of new strategies (e.g. environmental enrichment) to promote good welfare. Numerous studies that use behavioural indicators of welfare show that behavioural changes can be interpreted as either good or poor welfare depending on the fish species. It is therefore essential to understand the species-specific biology before drawing any conclusions in relation to welfare. In addition, different individuals within the same species may exhibit divergent coping strategies towards stressors, and what is tolerated by some individuals may be detrimental to others. Therefore, the assessment of welfare in a few individuals may not represent the average welfare of a group and vice versa. This underlines the need to develop on-farm, operational behavioural welfare indicators that can be easily used to assess not only the individual welfare but also the welfare of the whole group (e.g. spatial distribution). With the ongoing development of video technology and image processing, the on-farm surveillance of behaviour may in the near future represent a low-cost, noninvasive tool to assess the welfare of farmed fish.     

A bacterium that can grow by using arsenic instead of phosphorus

Life is mostly composed of the elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and phosphorus. Although these six elements make up nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids and thus the bulk of living matter, it is theoretically possible that some other elements in the periodic table could serve the same functions. Here, we describe a bacterium, strain GFAJ-1 of the Halomonadaceae, isolated from Mono Lake, California, that is able to substitute arsenic for phosphorus to sustain its growth. Our data show evidence for arsenate in macromolecules that normally contain phosphate, most notably nucleic acids and proteins. Exchange of one of the major bio-elements may have profound evolutionary and geochemical importance.     

Identification of an alkaline ceramidase gene from Dermatophilus congolensis

A random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) procedure was used to identify a specific 0.6 kb DNA fragment unique to Dermatophilus congolensis. This 0.6 kb fragment was evaluated as a specific DNA probe and used to design oligonucleotide primers for polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification. The nucleotide sequences adjacent to this DNA fragment were determined by inverse PCR allowing the identification of a 4.1 kb sequence. Analysis of this revealed a complete open reading frame (ORF) with a high similarity to an alkaline ceramidase from Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The molecular weight of the enzyme derived from the predicted amino acid sequence is 74,662 Da, its pI is 9.81. The predicted N-terminal sequence of the enzyme contains a signal sequence indicating that the enzyme is exported by the bacterium. Since ceramides have important protective and cell regulatory roles in the epidermis we suggest that this ceramidase may have a role in the pathogenesis of dermatophilosis. It is the first completely sequenced gene described for D. congolensis.     

Progressive transfer to seawater enhances intestinal and branchial Na+-K+-ATPase activity in non-anadromous rainbow trout

Two sizes of rainbow trout [170 (4), 91 (3) g] were progressively transferred to seawater in January 1995 using three steps of 9, 20 and 28. Na+-K+-ATPase activity in gills, intestine and kidney, and plasma sodium and magnesium levels were assessed in response to changed external salinity. Gradual transfer to seawater had a stimulatory effect on gill and intestinal Na+-K+-ATPase activities after the transfer to 28, while its activity remained unchanged in the kidney. Plasma sodium content was not modified, while magnesium levels increased in response to increased external salinity. The size-dependent response to seawater transfer described by other authors was not detected in our experiments. The results are discussed in terms of long-term adaptation to seawater.     

Corticotropin-releasing factor-producing neurons in the rat activated by interleukin-1

Intraperitoneal administration of human recombinant interleukin-1 (IL-1) to rats can increase blood levels of corticosterone and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). The route by which IL-1 affects pituitary-adrenal activity is unknown. That the IL-1-induced pituitary-adrenal activation involves an increased secretion of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) is indicated by three lines of evidence. First, immunoneutralization of CRF markedly attenuated the IL-1-induced increase of ACTH blood levels. Second, after blockade of fast axonal transport in hypothalamic neurons by colchicine, IL-1 administration decreased the CRF immunostaining in the median eminence, indicating an enhanced release of CRF in response to IL-1. Third, IL-1 did not stimulate ACTH release from primary cultures of anterior pituitary cells. These data further support the notion of the existence of an immunoregulatory feedback circuit between the immune system and the brain.     

A preliminary survey of viruses in pasture grasses in South Africa

Little work has been done in South Africa on the incidence of viruses in pasture grasses. The aim of this work was to carry out a survey of virus infections of some of the economically‐important pasture grasses in South Africa. Twelve winter and summer pasture grass species and one cereal forage crop species were collected from six different regions in early, mid‐ and late winter and summer. Plants were tested for virus(es) by means of symptomatology, transmission, dot‐blot immunoassays, Ouchterlony tests and electron microscopy. Serological tests indicate that Avena sativa from Roodeplaat and Bromus unioloides from Potchefstroom, Cedara and Nooitgedacht are positive for maize dwarf mosaic virus (MDMV). Lolium multiflorum from Cedara appears to be infected with two viruses, brome mosaic virus (BMV) and a potyvirus‐like agent, possibly ryegrass mosaic virus (RMV).     

Epidemiology of ryegrass mosaic virus in South Africa

The distribution and seasonal occurrence of ryegrass mosaic virus (RMV) in South Africa was determined. Italian ryegrass plants were collected from eight different research stations twice during the growing season in 1990 and 1991. Samples were tested for the presence of RMV by means of symptomology, electron microscopy, transmission and serology. The virus was found in only three of the tested sites, namely, Nooitgedacht (Ermelo), Cedara (Pietermaritzburg) and Glen (Bloemfontein). At Nooitgedacht and Cedara, the number of infected plants increased from mid‐season to late season, while at Glen, the number of infected plants was low at mid‐season and decreased even further by late season. It is suggested that the distribution and intensity of RMV may depend on regional temperature differences.     

Seasonal variation of macro and micronutrients in blades and petioles of Vitis vinifera L. cv. Mencía and Sousón

In the case of grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.), leaf blade and petioles at different sampling times are used for nutritional diagnosis and planning fertilization practices. However, reference values for each nutrient depend on the scion‐rootstock combination. In this sense, the current study aimed at determining the reliability of leaf blade and petiole for diagnosis at different phenological stages and, also, of the period of validity, around flowering and veraison, in which the nutrient concentrations obtained could be compared with reference values. The study was carried out in three vineyards (two planted with cv. Mencía and one with cv. Sousón) within the Ribeira Sacra Designation of Origin (NW Spain). Blades and petioles were collected throughout a growth season (2014) and total concentrations of ten essential elements were determined in both tissues. In general, petioles showed greater variability between replicates for P, K, Ca, Mg, and Zn, while N, Fe, Mn, Cu, and B presented greater variability in blades. Differences between consecutive sampling dates suggest that references for flowering were valid until fruit‐set. Furthermore, blade and petiole references at the beginning of veraison were valid until the advanced ripening stage for most nutrients, with the exception of N, P, and Zn. The seasonal variation of the concentrations in both tissues confirmed the need for reference values for each phenological stage and tissue.