Physiological limit of the daily endogenous cholecalciferol synthesis from UV light in cattle

The link between UV light (sunlight) and endogenous cholecalciferol (vitamin D₃) synthesis in the skin of humans has been known for more than a 100 years, since doctors for the first time successfully used UV light to cure rickets in children. Years later, it was shown that UV light also had a significant effect on the cholecalciferol status in the body of cattle. The cholecalciferol status in the body is measured as the plasma concentration of 25‐hydroxycholecalciferol, which in cattle and humans is the major circulating metabolite of cholecalciferol. Very little is, however, known about the quantitative efficiency of UV light as a source of cholecalciferol in cattle nutrition and physiology. Hence, the aim of this study was to determine the efficiency of using UV light for increasing the plasma 25‐hydroxycholecalciferol concentration in cholecalciferol‐deprived cattle. Twelve cows deprived of cholecalciferol for 6 months were divided into three treatment groups and exposed to UV light for 30, 90 or 120 min/day during 28 days. UV‐light wavelengths ranged from 280 to 415 nm and 30‐min exposure to the UV light was equivalent to 60‐min average summer‐sunlight exposure at 56 °N. Blood samples were collected every 3–4 days and analysed for 25‐hydroxycholecalciferol and cholecalciferol. Results showed that increasing the exposure time from 90–120 min/day did not change the slope of the daily increase in plasma 25‐hydroxycholecalciferol. Hence, it appears that cholecalciferol‐deprived dairy cattle are able to increase their plasma 25‐hydroxycholecalciferol concentration by a maximum of 1 ng/ml/day from UV‐light exposure.     

Monitoring of oxygen fluctuations in seabass cages (Dicentrarchus labrax L.) in a commercial fish farm in Greece

Dissolved oxygen and temperature were monitored in cages stocked seabass at a commercial fish farm in Greece during summer and autumn. During the first part of the study, October–November 2012, current velocity monitoring outside the cages supported the sampling program. The latter sampling took place during May–July 2014. Including both periods, temperature fluctuated within the range 18–26°C while the current velocity, dominated by the tidal flow, varied from 0 to 28 cm/s in autumn. During sampling, seabass of 400–550 g individual weight was stocked at a density of 10–15 kg/m³. Within the cages, dissolved oxygen (DO) saturation decreased by 10% to 50% compared with outside levels. In‐cage oxygen concentrations seemed to be affected by current speed, temperature and diurnal fluctuations due to the fish stock's activity and the day‐night rhythm of algae. Hypoxia within the range 40%–70% of oxygen saturation was shown in several cases, despite the fact that the feeding intensity was quite low in the farm. The diurnal pattern of DO saturation showed that minimum levels coincided with feeding of the fish, while photosynthesis played a minor role in this case. This level of DO saturation although does not result in any mortalities may have other severe implications, especially at high temperature, such as lower feed utilization, increased metabolic expenses due to osmo‐respiratory compromise, increased stress level, lower disease resistance and diminished fish welfare.     

Early introduction of an inert diet and unenriched Artemia enhances growth and quality of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) larvae

The effects of two weaning diets and different weaning protocols on growth, survival, skeletal deformity and gut morphology of Atlantic cod larvae were studied in four groups from 16 to 45 days posthatch (dph). Cod larvae in groups 1 (early weaning with control diet) and 2 (early weaning with experimental diet) were used to evaluate the effects of different polar lipid content of weaning diets on larval and juvenile performance. Cod larvae in groups 2, 3 (early weaning with experimental diet + cofeeding with Artemia) and 4 (earlier weaning with experimental diet and earlier cofeeding with Artemia) were used to evaluate the effects of early introduction of dry diet and Artemia. From 45 to 170 dph, cod juveniles from all four groups were reared using a standard feeding protocol. No significant differences in growth, survival, deformities and gut morphology were found between cod larvae and juveniles from groups 1 and 2. Cod larvae fed on cofeeding regime with Artemia nauplii (groups 3 and 4) were bigger and had lower frequencies of jaw and neck deformities and higher foregut microvillus circumference than cod larvae from group 2. Our results demonstrate the importance of proper weaning protocols in producing better quality cod juveniles.     

Improving production efficiency of farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) by isoenergetic diets with increased dietary protein‐to‐lipid ratio

The effects of isoenergetic diets with high (HP) and low (LP) protein‐to‐lipid ratios on feeding rate (SFR), feed conversion (FCR), growth (TGC) and relative‐ and absolute nutrient retention were investigated using both whole‐body weight (BW) and carcass weight (CW) to assess the production efficiency. Three different feeding trials in seawater were conducted: two large‐scale trials with yearling smolt (S1) and under‐yearling smolt (S0) and one small‐scale with S1 smolt. The initial body weights in the trials were 105, 319 and 978 g, respectively, and the fish were fed and monitored until they reached harvest weights. In all three trials, the dietary HP group attained significantly higher (p < .05) CW at harvest based on fish with equal BW. Also, fish fed the HP diets significantly improved FCR (p < .05) when based on CW. In the small‐scale trial, fish fed HP diet, especially during late autumn and spring, significantly (p < .001) improved FCR_BW and FCR_CW. Improved FCR coincided with significantly higher (p < .05) relative energy retention in the dietary HP group. In all three trials, the HP groups had significantly higher (p < .05) TGC with regard to both BW and CW. Taken together, the present studies indicate that growth performance and feed utilization in modern salmon farming has the potential to be further improved by increasing the dietary protein‐to‐lipid ratio. In addition, dietary influence is more precisely assessed when using carcass as the weight denominator when analysing feed utilization and growth performance.     

Relationship Between Fecal Indicators in Sediment and Recreational Waters in a Danish Estuary

The European Union has introduced a new bathing water directive where future classification of recreational waters will be based on the microbial parameters Escherichia coli, and intestinal enterococci. Introduction of enterococci as a new quality parameter may pose a challenge in some areas because relatively less is known about these organisms compared to E. coli. In the present study, the relative abundance of intestinal enterococci, E. coli, and ten fecal sterol and stanol biomarkers were investigated in water and sediment at two estuarine beach sites affected by fecal pollution. In the bathing water, enterococci were relatively more abundant at low E. coli concentrations. In the sediment, enterococci were generally more abundant than E. coli with surface concentrations between 1.0?×?10² and 4.5?×?10³ CFU cm^?3. Enterococci populations were relatively similar in water and sediment, and were phenotypically different from that of nearby pollution sources. The putative human specific genetic marker esp in Enterococcus faecium was not detected in water or sediment samples despite occasional inputs of human waste from storm water overflows. Sterol and stanol profiles suggested a direct link between water and sediment pollution profiles on days with wind conditions that facilitated resuspension. Sediment resuspension may occur at wind speeds exceeding 6–8 m s^?1, and could contribute significantly to enterococci concentrations in the overlying water. The study emphasized that recontamination of the water column due to wind induced resuspension should be considered when evaluating indicator levels and microbial hazards in estuarine recreational waters.     

‘David and Goliath’ of the soil food web – Flagellates that kill nematodes

Nematodes and flagellates are important bacterial predators in soil and sediments. Generally, these organisms are considered to be competitors for bacterial food. We studied the interaction among flagellates and nematodes using axenic liquid cultures amended with heat-killed bacteria as food and showed for the first time that a small and common soil flagellate (Cercomonas sp.) is able to attack and kill the much larger nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. The killing process is not caused by soluble metabolites but requires direct contact between the flagellate cells and the nematode surface and occurs rapidly (within a few hours) at high flagellate density. At lower flagellate density, adult nematodes sometimes avoid attachment of flagellates, feed on them and become the dominant bacterial predator. Considering that bacterial feeders affect bacterial communities differently, and that one bacterial feeder can control the abundance of another, suggests a new perspective on how bacterial diversity and trophic interactions are linked in the soil food web.     

Invasive Acacia longifolia induce changes in the microbial catabolic diversity of sand dunes

Acacia longifolia is one of the main plant species invading Portuguese dune ecosystems. Areas invaded by this exotic tree have reduced plant diversity and altered soil microbial processes and nutrient pools, but the impacts on microbial functional diversity in the soil have been little explored. Soil samples were collected in areas invaded by A. longifolia for more than 20 years, in areas invaded after 1995 and in non-invaded areas. Respiration responses to 20 different substrates were analysed, in order to assess the catabolic response profile (CRP) as a measure of microbial functional diversity. Five substrate groups were tested: amino acids, carbohydrates, carboxylic acids, plant litters, and plant polymers. CRP clearly discriminated between the three different areas. Respiratory responses to the individual substrates α-ketoglutaric acid, oxalic acid, starch, citric acid, and xylose and to the groups of amino acids and plant polymers were similar in both invaded areas and different in the non-invaded. The responses to tartaric acid, gallic acid, fumaric acid, Cistus litter, and Acacia litter were the same in long- and non-invaded areas, but different from recently invaded areas. The duration of invasion, carbon (C) content, nitrogen (N) content, C/N ratio, pH, and litter quantity explained 39.6% of the variance of catabolic responses. It is concluded that invasion by A. longifolia has substantial effects on the catabolic diversity of the soil microbial communities. These effects may have wider implications for nutrient cycling and ecosystem-level processes and for the invasibility of the system.     

Development of a LC-MS/MS method for the analysis of enniatins and beauvericin in whole fresh and ensiled maize

A LC-MS/MS method for the detection of beauvericin and the four enniatins A, A1, B, and B1 in maize and maize silage was developed. The method uses direct injection of maize extracts without any tedious and laborious cleanup procedures. The limit of quantification was determined at 13 ng g(-1) for beauvericin and at 17, 34, 24, and 26 ng g(-1) for enniatins A, A1, B, and B1, respectively. The method was used in surveys of the compounds in fresh maize samples collected at harvest in 2005 and 2006. All samples had the same distribution of the enniatins: B > B1 > A1 > A. Enniatin B was present in 90% of the samples in 2005 and in 100% in 2006 at levels up to 489 and 2598 ng g(-1), respectively. Beauvericin contamination was more frequently detected in 2006 than in 2005 (89 and 10%, respectively) and in higher amounts (988 and 71 ng g(-1), respectively). The occurrence of beauvericin and the four enniatins was examined in 3-month-old maize silage stacks from 20 different farms. As observed in fresh maize, enniatin B was the most abundant compound in ensiled maize and was found from 19 stacks at levels up to 218 ng g(-1). The stability of enniatin B in maize silage was assessed by analyzing samples from 10 of the silage stacks taken after 3, 7, and 11 months of ensiling. Enniatin B could be detected at all locations after 11 months and appeared to be stable during ensiling.     

Genetic variation and inheritance in a 9 × 9 diallel in silver birch (Betula pendula)

A complete diallel cross was made among nine Betula pendula trees growing in a natural population and a trial was planted on agricultural soil at one site. This exceptional trial has provided estimates of genetic parameters that can only be estimated in complete diallels. Traits measured were height and diameter during a period of 37 years, and assessments were made of bud burst, leaf abscission and rust infection at the early ages. All traits showed genetic variation and the variance components of general combining ability (GCA) effects were dominating, with heritability estimates of 0.16 and 0.23 for height and diameter at age six years. The best-growing families could be identified at that age. At age 37 years, when the trial had been thinned twice, the offspring from the highest and lowest ranked parent for growth contributed with 19% and 6% of the total volume of the stand, respectively. The GCA effects were also highly significant for the assessment traits, but with an interaction with year for bud burst. High values of estimates of genetic correlations proved that bud burst, leaf abscission and rust infection are interrelated, and also to some extent with growth traits. Families with an early bud burst were tallest, were less affected by the rust fungus and kept their leaves later in the autumn.     

Suspended matter and associated contaminants in Danish streams: a national analysis

Purpose

Suspended matter (SM) in streams is usually considered of minor importance in Danish environmental management. However, SM has some ecological effects as it may (1) clog fish spawning grounds and (2) act as an important agent for transport and exposure of biota to chemical substances, such as phosphorus and toxic inorganic (e.g. heavy metals) and organic (e.g. pesticides) substances.

Materials and methods

A large national data set of >?100,000 water samples analysed for SM and loss on ignition was investigated for spatial concentration patterns, sediment yields and temporal trends. Moreover, the importance of SM as a transport agent for phosphorus and heavy metals in streams was investigated through a correlation analysis.

Results and discussion

The mean suspended matter concentration (SMC) (including organic matter) amounted to 12 mg l^?1, with an organic content of 4.9 mg l^?1 (41%). A clear difference in SMC temporal trends over the sampling period was found between geographical regions. Sediment yields were calculated for all major catchments revealing low sediment yields (1–15 t km^?2 year^?1) compared to neighbouring countries and showed clear geographical patterns. Statistically significant relationships were established between SMCs, suspended sediment concentrations (SSCs) (excluding organic matter) and organic matter concentrations (OMCs) and particulate phosphorus (PP) concentrations, and again spatial patterns appeared. However, it was clearly shown that SMC/SSC/OMC could not be used as a robust, nationwide, indicator for PP concentrations. Analyses of the relationship between SMC and particle-bound heavy metal concentrations generally revealed weak correlations except for Pb and Ni (median R²?>?0.3).

Conclusions

Relatively low SM concentrations and sediment yields were found. SM is, in some geographical regions, an important transport agent for PP. Clear geographical patterns occurred in the relationships between SMC/SSC/OMC and both river water discharge and PP, as well as for sediment yields and for temporal trends in SMC.