Litter dynamics of six multipurpose trees in a homegarden in Southern Kerala, India

Multipurpose trees, the integral components of homegardens, contribute significantly to the closed nutrient cycling processes and sustainability of the ecosystem. Although, the litter production and probable nutrient returns via litter in homegardens have been documented, quantification and characterization of the decomposition and bioelement release from the litter have received relatively little scientific attention. The objective of the present study is to explore the litter dynamics of six locally important multipurpose trees (Mangifera indica L., Artocarpus heterophyllus Lamk., Anacardium occidentale L., Ailanthus triphysa Dennst., Artocarpus hirsutus L. and Swietenia macrophylla L.), in an agroforestry homegarden in Southern Kerala, India. Litterfall and nutrient additions in the six species ranged from 383 to 868 g m⁻² yr⁻¹, nitrogen, 6.4 to 8.8, phosphorus, 0.17 to 0.42 and potassium, 1.1 to 2.8 g m⁻² yr⁻¹. The annual litter output in the homegarden was 425 kg with A. hirsutus, M. indica, A. heterophyllus and A. occidentale recording significantly higher litter and nutrient additions. Leaf litter decay studies revealed A. heterophyllus and A. occidentale to be the most labile litter species and S. macrophylla the most recalcitrant. The decay rate coefficients varied significantly among the species. Foliage decomposition rates related to the initial chemical composition of the litter revealed best correlation with lignin. NPK release was almost complete by the end of decay in all species inspite of the initial phases of accumulation observed for nitrogen and phosphorus. Two-way analysis of variance test revealed significant differences in the contents of the three elements as a function of species and time elapsed. Macronutrients were released in the order K>N/P. The higher rates of decay and nutrient turnover in M. indica, A. heterophyllus and A. occidentale foliage indicated the potential of using these species’ litter as nutrient inputs in agriculture while A. triphysa, A. hirsutus and S. macrophylla perform better as organic mulches taking a longer time for decay and hence nutrient release.     

Oviposition preference,larval distribution and impact of the swede midge, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Contarinia nasturtii</Emphasis>, on growth and yield of canola

The swede midge (Contarinia nasturtii) has become a significant economic pest of canola (Brassica napus L.) in Ontario and an emergent pest in the Prairie provinces. Determining yield impacts of swede midge damage and the growth stage(s) at which canola is most vulnerable or attractive to swede midge will contribute to the development of pest management recommendations throughout the growth of the crop. In four experiments, canola plants were exposed to specific densities of adult swede midge and measures of oviposition, damage and yield were collected. There was a significant positive relationship between female density and total oviposition per plant with a very high capacity for larval numbers on canola; up to ~ 4000. Given a choice of four growth stages, approximately 85% of oviposition occurred on seven-leaf and early bud canola. Given no choice, the high total oviposition on 3-leaf and flowering stages suggests that swede midge will oviposit on less favorable canola growth stages, if no others are present. Damage sustained on primary racemes remained relatively constant over time. However, damage ratings on secondary and tertiary racemes decreased over time in the highest treatment densities, suggesting compensation by the plant. All yield measures, except seed weight per pod, significantly decreased with increasing female density on primary and/or secondary racemes. A density of ~ 0.6 females per plant resulted in 10% reductions in the number of pods and seed weight produced on primary racemes. These results support recommendations for insecticide applications at, or just prior to, the early bud stage.     

Technique for rapid, small-scale analysis of vitamin C levels in fruit and application to a tomato mutant collection

We present a technique for easy, rapid analysis of both total and reduced forms of vitamin C in fruits using microplates and a plate reader. This technique has been compared with a spectrofluorometric technique classically used for assaying vitamin C in fresh tomato. We have applied these methods to a population of 118 tomato mutant lines and controls in search of variability for this trait. Six lines, identified as having high vitamin C levels, and four lines having low vitamin C levels have been chosen for further study. The vitamin C levels have been compared with sugar concentration, dry matter content, fruit weight, titratable acidity, and firmness. The correlations that often exist in tomato varieties between sugar and vitamin C content (positive correlation) or fruit weight and vitamin C content (negative correlation) can be uncoupled in the lines selected for further analysis.     

Nutrient‐enriched soils and native N‐fixing plants in New Zealand

Approximately 40% of New Zealand's land mass is fertilized grassland with entirely non‐native plants, but currently there is substantially increased interest in restoration of native plants into contemporary agricultural matrices. Native vegetation is adapted to more acid and less fertile soils and their establishment and growth may be constrained by nutrient spillover from agricultural land. We investigated plant–soil interactions of native N‐fixing and early successional non N‐fixing plants in soils with variable fertility. The effects of soil amendments of urea (100 and 300 kg N ha^?1), lime (6000 kg CaCO₃ ha^?1), and superphosphate (470 kg ha^?1) and combinations of these treatments were evaluated in a glasshouse pot trial. Plant growth, soil pH, soil mineral N, Olsen P and nodule nitrogenase activity in N‐fixing plants were measured. Urea amendments to soil were not inhibitory to the growth of native N‐fixing plants at lower N application rates; two species responded positively to combinations of N, P and lime. Phosphate enrichment enhanced nodulation in N‐fixers, but nitrogen inhibited nodulation, reduced soil pH and provided higher nitrate concentrations in soil. The contribution of mineral N to soil from the 1‐year old N‐fixing plants was small, in amounts extrapolated to be 10–14 kg ha^?1 y^?1. Urea, applied both alone and in conjunction with other amendments, enhanced the growth of the non N‐fixing species, which exploited mineral N more efficiently; without N, application of lime and P had little effect or was detrimental. The results showed native N‐fixing plants can be embedded in agroecology systems without significant risk of further increasing soil fertility or enhancing nitrate leaching.     

Small Business Development and Nonmetropolitan Job Growth in Georgia

To assess development potential of small business, this research examines the age and size characteristics of nonmetropolitan firms and the contribution of business ‘births,’‘deaths,’ expansions, and contractions to job growth. Analysis of data derived from the federal‐state unemployment insurance program in Georgia indicates that firms employing fewer than 100 workers account for 44.3 percent of private sector nonfarm employment in nonmetropolitan counties. Overall, the mix of small and large firms remained quite stable over the five year study period. The dynamics of job creation and loss differed dramatically by enterprise size and manufacturing/nonmanufacturing sector. Three segments of the business population contributed most to rural job growth: very small continuing firms, large manufacturing establishments, and non‐manufacturing businesses owned by large enterprises. The paper concludes with a discussion of economic development policies that may enable rural communities to capitalize on these business demographic trends.     

Phenolic acids in foods: an overview of analytical methodology

Phenolic acids are aromatic secondary plant metabolites, widely spread throughout the plant kingdom. Existing analytical methods for phenolic acids originated from interest in their biological roles as secondary metabolites and from their roles in food quality and their organoleptic properties. Recent interest in phenolic acids stems from their potential protective role, through ingestion of fruits and vegetables, against oxidative damage diseases (coronary heart disease, stroke, and cancers). High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) as well as gas chromatography (GC) are the two separation techniques reviewed. Extraction from plant matrixes and cleavage reactions through hydrolysis (acidic, basic, and enzymatic) are discussed as are the derivatization reagents used in sample preparation for GC. Detection systems discussed include UV-Vis spectroscopy, mass spectrometry, electrochemical, and fluorometric detection. The most common tandem techniques are HPLC/UV and GC/MS, yet LC/MS is becoming more common. The masses and MS fragmentation patterns of phenolic acids are discussed and tabulated as are the UV absorption maxima.     

Effectiveness of biodiversity indicators varies with extent, grain, and region

The use of indicator taxa for conservation planning is common, despite inconsistent evidence regarding their effectiveness. These inconsistencies may be the result of differences among species and taxonomic groups studied, geographic location, or scale of analysis. The scale of analysis can be defined by grain and extent, which are often confounded. Grain is the size of each observational unit and extent is the size of the entire study area. Using species occurrence records compiled by NatureServe from survey data, range maps, and expert opinion, we examined correlations in species richness between each of seven taxa (amphibians, birds, butterflies, freshwater fish, mammals, freshwater mussels, and reptiles) and total richness of the remaining six taxa at varying grains and extents in two regions of the US (Mid-Atlantic and Pacific Northwest). We examined four different spatial units of interest: hexagon (∼649 km²), subecoregion (3800-34,000 km²), ecoregion (8300-79,000 km²), and geographic region (315,000-426,000 km²). We analyzed the correlations with varying extent of analysis (grain held constant at the hexagon) and varying grain (extent held constant at the region). The strength of correlation among taxa was context dependent, varying widely with grain, extent, region, and taxon. This suggests that (1) taxon, grain, extent, and study location explain, in part, inconsistent results of previous studies; (2) planning based on indicator relationships developed at other grains or extents should be undertaken cautiously; and (3) planning based on indicator relationships developed in other geographic locations is risky, even if planning occurs at an equivalent grain and extent.