Evaluation of a continuous glucose monitoring system for use in dogs, cats, and horses

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate a continuous glucose monitoring system (CGMS) for use in dogs, cats, and horses. DESIGN: Prospective clinical study. Animals-7 horses, 3 cats, and 4 dogs that were clinically normal and 1 horse, 2 cats, and 3 dogs with diabetes mellitus. PROCEDURE: Interstitial glucose concentrations were monitored and recorded every 5 minutes by use of a CGMS. Interstitial glucose concentrations were compared with whole blood glucose concentrations as determined by a point-of-care glucose meter. Interstitial glucose concentrations were also monitored in 2 clinically normal horses after oral and i.v. administration of glucose. RESULTS: There was a positive correlation between interstitial and whole blood glucose concentrations for clinically normal dogs, cats, and horses and those with diabetes mellitus. Events such as feeding, glucose or insulin administration, restraint, and transport to the clinic were recorded by the owner or clinician and could be identified on the graph and associated with time of occurrence. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Our data indicate that use of CGMS is valid for dogs, cats, and horses. This system alleviated the need for multiple blood samples and the stress associated with obtaining those samples. Because hospitalization was not required, information obtained from the CGMS provided a more accurate assessment of the animal's glucose concentrations for an extended period, compared with measurement of blood glucose concentrations. Use of the CGMS will promote the diagnostic and research potential of serial glucose monitoring.     

Supplemental norgestomet,progesterone, or melengestrol acetate increases pregnancy rates in suckled beef cows after timed inseminations

In Exp. 1, 187 lactating beef cows were treated with injections of GnRH 7 d before and 48 h after prostaglandin F2alpha (PGF2alpha; Cosynch) or with Cosynch plus a 7-d treatment with an intravaginal progesterone (P4)-releasing insert (CIDR-B; Cosynch + CIDR). In Exp. 2, 183 lactating beef cows were treated with the Cosynch protocol or with Cosynch plus a 7-d treatment with norgestomet (Cosynch + NORG). In Exp. 1 and 2, blood samples for later P4 analyses were collected on d -17, -7 (first GnRH injection), 0 (PGF2alpha injection), and at timed artificial insemination (TAI; 48 h after PGF2alpha). In Exp. 3, 609 lactating beef cows were treated with the Cosynch + CIDR protocol or were fed 0.5 mg of melengestrol acetate (MGA) per day for 14 d before initiating the Cosynch protocol 12 d after the 14th d of MGA feeding (MGA + Cosynch). Blood samples were collected as in Exp. 1 and 2, plus additional samples on d -33 and -19 before PGF2alpha. In Exp. 4, 360 lactating beef cows were treated with a Cosynch + CIDR protocol, with TAI occurring at either 48 or 60 h after PGF2alpha, while receiving either GnRH or saline to form four treatments. Blood samples were collected as in Exp. 1 and 2. In Exp. 1, addition of P4 reduced the ability of the first GnRH injection to induce ovulation in anestrous cows with low P4 before PGF2alpha but improved (P = 0.06) pregnancy rates (61 vs 66%). In Exp. 2, the addition of NORG mimicked P4 by likewise increasing (P < 0.01) pregnancy rates (31 vs 51%) beyond those after Cosynch. In Exp. 3, the Cosynch + CIDR protocol increased (P < 0.001) pregnancy rates from 46 to 55% compared to the MGA + Cosynch protocol. In Exp. 4, administration of GnRH at TAI improved (P < 0.05) pregnancy outcomes (50 vs 42%), whereas timing of TAI had limited effects. We conclude that a progestin treatment concurrent with the Cosynch protocol improved pregnancy outcomes in all experiments, but pretreatment of cows with MGA was not as effective as the CIDR insert or NORG implants in this Cosynch-TAI model. Most of the improvement in pregnancy rates was associated with the increase in pregnancy rates of anestrous cows, regardless of whether ovulation was successfully induced in response to GnRH 7 d before PGF2alpha. Injection of GnRH at TAI following the Cosynch + CIDR protocol increased pregnancy rates in cycling cows with high P4 before the PGF2alpha injection and in anestrous cows with low P4 before PGF2alpha injection.     

Influence of milk production potential on forage dry matter intake by multiparous and primiparous Brangus females

Brangus cows (n = 29) were used in three experiments to evaluate the effects of parity (multiparous vs. primiparous) and potential genetic merit for milk production (high vs. low) on forage intake during late gestation, early lactation, and late lactation. Cows were selected for milk production based on their sire's EPD for milk production (MEPD). Cows had ad libitum access to (130% of previous 2-d average intake) low-quality hay (5.3% CP and 76% NDF), and cottonseed meal was supplemented to ensure adequate degradable intake protein. All females were adapted to diets for at least 7 d, and individual intake data were collected for 9 d. During the lactation trials, actual milk production was determined using a portable milking machine following a 12-h separation from calves. During late gestation, multiparous cows consumed 24% more (P = 0.01) forage DM (kg/d) than primiparous cows; however, parity class did not influence forage intake when intake was expressed relative to BW. Furthermore, MEPD did not influence forage intake during late gestation. During early lactation, multiparous cows produced 66% more (P < 0.001) milk than primiparous cows, and high MEPD tended (P = 0.10) to produce more milk than low MEPD. Multiparous cows consumed 19% more (P < 0.0001) forage DM than did primiparous cows when expressed on an absolute basis, but not when expressed on a BW basis. High-MEPD cows consumed 8% more (P < 0.05) forage DM than did low-MEPD cows. During late lactation, multiparous cows produced 84% more milk than primiparous cows, although MEPD did not influence (P = 0.40) milk yield. In addition, multiparous cows consumed 17% more (P < 0.01) forage DM per day than primiparous cows, but when intake was expressed relative to BW, neither parity nor MEPD influenced forage DMI during late lactation. Milk yield and BW explained significant proportions of the variation in forage DMI during early and late lactation. Each kilogram increase in milk yield was associated with a 0.33- and 0.37-kg increase in forage DMI for early and late lactation, respectively. Results suggest that multiand primiparous cows consume similar amounts of low-quality forage DM, expressed per unit of BW, during late gestation and lactation. Selecting beef cows for increased genetic merit for milk production increases forage DMI during early lactation.     

Effects of deslorelin acetate implants in horses: single implants in stallions and steroid-treated geldings and multiple implants in mares

Three experiments were performed to test the following hypotheses: 1) stallions and/or progesterone-estradiol-treated geldings could serve as models for the effects of a single implant of the GnRH analog, deslorelin acetate, on LH and FSH secretion by mares; and 2) multiple implants of deslorelin acetate could be used as a means of inducing ovarian atrophy in mares for future study of the mechanisms involved in the atrophy observed in some mares after a single implant. In Exp. 1, nine light horse stallions received either a single deslorelin implant (n = 5) or a sham injection (n = 4) on d 0. In Exp. 2, 12 geldings received daily injections of progesterone on d -20 through -4, followed by twice-daily injections of estradiol on d -2 to 0. On the morning of d 0, geldings received either a single deslorelin implant (n = 6) or a sham injection (n = 6). Daily injections of progesterone were resumed on d 2 through 15. In Exp. 1, plasma LH and FSH were elevated (P < 0.05) in the treatment group relative to controls at 4, 8, and 12 h after implant insertion. In the treated stallions, FSH was decreased (P < 0.05) on d 3 to 13, and LH was decreased on d 6 to 13. In Exp. 2, plasma LH and FSH were elevated (P < 0.05) at 4,8, and 12 h after deslorelin implant insertion. Plasma LH was suppressed (P < 0.05) below controls on d 2 to 7, 9, and 11 to 15; plasma FSH was suppressed (P < 0.05) on d 4 to 15. In Exp. 3, 21 mares were used to determine whether multiple doses of deslorelin would cause ovarian atrophy. Mares received one of three treatments: 1) sham injections; 2) three implants on the first day; or 3) one implant per day for 3 d (n = 7 per group). Treatment with multiple implants increased (P < 0.05) the interovulatory interval by 14.8 d and suppressed (P < 0.01) LH and FSH concentrations for approximately 25 d; no mare exhibited ovarian atrophy. In conclusion, after an initial short-term increase in LH and FSH secretion, deslorelin implants caused long-term suppression of both gonadotropins in stallions as well as in geldings treated with progesterone and estradiol to mimic the estrous cycle. It is likely that either of these models may be useful for further study of this suppression in horses. Although multiple implants in mares suppressed gonadotropin secretion longer than a single implant, the lack of ovarian atrophy indicates that the atrophy observed after a single implant in previous experiments was likely due to the susceptibility of individual mares.     

Dictyocaulus species: cross infection between cattle and red deer

Aim: To discover whether cross infection between red deer (Cervus elaphus) and cattle is possible with either a bovine isolate of the cattle lungworm, Dictyocaulus viviparus, or with a cervine isolate of the lungworm, Dictyocaulus eckerti which is thought to be maintained primarily in deer. Method: Twelve cattle and 12 red deer were reared parasite-free from birth. At 3-4 months of age, half of each species (n=6) were experimentally infected with D. viviparus and the other half with D. eckerti. The course of infection was monitored for 34 days, after which the animals were slaughtered and the lungs removed to assess levels of infection. Results: Faecal larval counts demonstrated that patent Dictyocaulus infections occurred in all groups. At necropsy, adult worms were found in the lungs in all groups except the cattle that were infected with D. eckerti. The largest numbers of adult worms were found in the red deer infected with D. eckerti. Conclusion: It was demonstrated that both cattle and red deer could be infected with either D. viviparus or D. eckerti. However, D. eckerti larvae that originated from deer established more successfully in deer and D. viviparus larvae that originated from cattle established more successfully in cattle.     

Association between bovine-leukosis virus seroprevalence and herd-level productivity on US dairy farms

Bovine-leukosis virus (BLV; also termed ‘bovine-leukemia virus’) is a retrovirus that primarily affects lymphoid tissue of dairy and beef cattle. Our objective was to investigate the association between BLV infection and annual value of production (AVP) on dairy herds within the United States, as part of the USDA National Animal Health Monitoring System’s 1996 dairy study. 1006 herds (in 20 states) with at least 30 dairy cows were interviewed during 1996. The agar-gel immunodiffusion test was used to detect serum antibodies to BLV. 10–40 cows from each herd were tested and each tested cow was classified as negative or positive based on results of a single test.

A multivariable regression model was used with the 976 herds with complete data for analysis. When compared to herds with no test-positive cows, herds with test-positive cows produced 218 kg per cow (i.e. 3%) less milk. The average reduction in AVP was $ 59 per cow for test-positive herds relative to test-negative herds. For the dairy industry as a whole, BLV seropositivity was associated with loss to producers of $ 285 million and $ 240 million for consumers. Most of this $ 525 million industry loss was due to reduced milk production in test-positive herds.     

Feline intraocular tumors may arise from transformation of lens epithelium

Feline ocular sarcomas are malignant intraocular neoplasms that are frequently associated with a history of ocular trauma. They usually present as fibrosarcomas, but some have both epithelial and mesenchymal features. The purpose of this study was to determine the cell of origin of a subset of feline intraocular sarcomas that display a mixed epithelial-mesenchymal phenotype, with elaboration of basement membrane-type matrix. We examined the morphology and histochemical and immunohistochemical phenotypes of nine feline intraocular sarcomas. Immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization were performed to detect expression of crystallin alpha A. In addition, tumors were examined for expression of vimentin, cytokeratin, smooth muscle actin, desmin, melan A, neural cell adhesion molecule, S-100, glial fibrillary acidic protein, nerve growth factor receptor, and collagen type IV. Animals ranged from 7 to 17 years of age--no breed or sex predilection for tumor occurrence was present. Tumors were characterized by mixed epithelial and mesenchymal phenotypes, both of which elaborated basement membrane-type material and expressed vimentin highly. On the basis of collagen type IV and crystallin alpha A immunopositivity, we established that three of nine tumors were of lens epithelial origin. Expression of desmin and smooth muscle actin identified one tumor as a leiomyosarcoma. The remainder were undifferentiated sarcomas of myofibroblastic origin. This is the first report of lens epithelial neoplasia in clinical material from any species. The history and morphologic features of feline ocular sarcomas are reminiscent of feline vaccine-induced sarcomas. These tumors may share pathophysiologic similarities unique to this species.     

3-methylindole induces transient olfactory mucosal injury in ponies

Response to 3-methylindole (3MI) varies among species. Mice recover from 3MI-induced bronchiolar epithelial injury but sustain persistent olfactory mucosal injury with scarring and epithelial metaplasia. In contrast, 3MI induces obliterative bronchiolitis in horses and ponies, but olfactory mucosal injury has not been reported. To evaluate the effect of 3MI on equine olfactory mucosa, ponies were dosed orally with 100 mg 3MI/kg (n = 9) or corn oil vehicle (n = 6). All ponies treated with 3MI developed obliterative bronchiolitis with mild olfactory injury. By 3 days after 3MI dosing, olfactory epithelium appeared disorganized with decreased and uneven surface height and scalloping of the basement membrane zone. Epithelial cells of Bowman's glands were hypertrophic. Proliferation of olfactory epithelium and Bowman's glands was supported by an increased mitotic index and positive immunohistochemical staining for proliferating cell nuclear antigen as compared with controls. The activity of 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, an olfactory mucosal cytosolic enzyme localized to sustentacular and Bowman's glandular epithelial cells, was concurrently decreased. By 9 days postdosing, olfactory mucosal lesions had lessened. Results indicate that 3MI transiently injures equine olfactory mucosa without the extensive necrosis, scarring, or metaplasia seen in murine olfactory mucosa or in equine bronchiolar epithelium.     

Comparison of serologic tests for detection of Brucella infections in cattle and water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis)

OBJECTIVE: To estimate sensitivity and specificity of 4 commonly used brucellosis screening tests in cattle and domestic water buffalo of Trinidad, and to compare test parameter estimates between cattle and water buffalo. ANIMALS: 391 cattle and 381 water buffalo. PROCEDURE: 4 Brucella-infected herds (2 cattle and 2 water buffalo) and 4 herds (2 of each species) considered to be brucellosis-free were selected. A minimum of 100 animals, or all animals > 1 year of age, were tested from each herd. Serum samples were evaluated for Brucella-specific antibodies by use of standard plate agglutination test (SPAT), card test (CT), buffered plate agglutination test (BPAT), and standard tube agglutination test (STAT). A Bayesian approach was used to estimate sensitivity and specificity of diagnostic tests without the use of a gold standard, assuming conditional independence of tests. RESULTS: Sensitivity and specificity estimates in cattle, respectively, were SPAT, 66.7 and 98.9; CT, 72.7 and 99.6; BPAT, 88.1 and 98.1; and STAT, 80.2 and 99.3. Corresponding test estimates in water buffalo, respectively, were SPAT, 51.4 and 99.3; CT, 90.4 and 99.4; BPAT, 96.3 and 90.7; and STAT, 75.0 and 98.8. Sensitivity of the CT and specificity of the BPAT were different between cattle and water buffalo with at least 95% probability. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Brucellosis serologic test performance varied by species tested, but BPAT had the highest sensitivity for screening cattle and water buffalo. Sensitivity and specificity of more than 2 screening tests can be estimated simultaneously without a gold standard by use of Bayesian techniques.     

Vertical position of the patella in the stifle joint of clinically normal large-breed dogs

OBJECTIVE: To define the vertical position of the patella in clinically normal large-breed dogs. SAMPLE POPULATION: Cadavers of 13 clinically normal large-breed dog. PROCEDURE: Both hind limbs were harvested with intact stifle joints and mounted on a positioning device that allowed full range of motion of the stifle joint. Lateral radiographic views were obtained with the stifle joints positioned at each of 5 angles (148 degrees, 130 degrees, 113 degrees, 96 degrees, and 75 degrees). Vertical position of the patella through a range of motion was depicted on a graph of mean stifle angle versus corresponding mean proximal patellar position (PPP) and distal patellar position (DPP) relative to the femoral trochlea for each dog. Ratio of length of the patellar ligament to length of the patella (L:P) was determined for each dog. Overall mean, SD, and 95% confidence intervals for L:P were calculated for all dogs. RESULTS: Evaluation of vertical position of the patella through a range of motion revealed a nearly linear relationship between joint angle and PPP and joint angle and DPPF Evaluation of L:P results did not reveal significant differences between limbs (left or right) or among joint angles. Overall mean +/- SD L:P for all dogs was 1.68 +/- 0.18 (95% confidence interval, 1.33 to 2.03). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The L:P proved to be a repeatable measurement of vertical patellar position, which is independent of stifle angles from 75 degrees to 148 degrees.This measurement could be used as a quantitative method for diagnosing patella alta and patella baja in large-breed dogs.