Predicting the energy and protein requirements of the pregnant grasscutter (Thryonomys swinderianus, Temminck) using the changes in weight and composition of the foetus and associated tissues of pregnancy

Eighteen (18) gravid uteri collected from hunters’ kills during February and March 2008 were used to investigate growth and accretion of energy and protein in the gravid uterus during pregnancy in the grasscutter. Each gravid uterus was separated into foetal, placental, empty uterus and foetal fluids (amniotic and allantoic fluids combined) components. Individual tissues were weighed and analyzed for dry matter (DM), ash, crude protein (CP) and crude fat. Regression equations were fitted to the weights of each component to describe the effects of gestational age. The DM, protein and energy contents of individual uterine tissues, with the exception of the DM of the foetal fluids, increased significantly with advancing gestation age so that the DM of the gravid uterus increased ~20-fold from days 45 to 152 (3.85 v. 76.24 g). However, the average elemental N in the foetus was 8.3 g?N/100 g. Percentage DM did not change with advancing gestation age. Fat content of the foetal grasscutter was 2.79 %. Changes in foetal protein and energy fitted a multi-phasic regression that consisted of two linear equations. Similarly, changes in foetal fat and water contents fitted a multi-phasic regression that consisted of two linear equations, indicating that protein and energy growth accelerated after days 95 and 97 of gestation, respectively, with increases in fat and water accelerating after days 127 and 96 of gestation, respectively. Foetal protein and energy accretions were 0.04 g?day^?1 and 0.001 MJ?day^?1 before days 95 and 97 of gestation, respectively, and increased to 0.31 g?day^?1 and 0.009 MJ?day^?1 after days 95 and 97 of gestation, respectively. Fat and water accretions were also 0.012 g?day^?1 and 0.15 ml?day^?1 before days 127 and 96 of gestation, respectively, and increased to 0.104 g?day^?1 and 1.29 ml?day^?1 after the respective days of gestation. Protein needs for tissue protein gain increased ~8-fold after day 95 of gestation. Results of this study indicate that the growth of the foetus and foetal tissues occur at different rates during gestation and points to a two-phase feeding strategy before and after day 95 of gestation for pregnant grasscutters.     

Policy and Legal Frameworks Governing Trees: Incentives or Disincentives for Smallholder Tree Planting Decisions in Cameroon?

Agroforestry and planting trees on farmers’ fields have been reported as important elements in a strategy to meet the millennium development goals of poverty reduction and climate change improvement. However, their uptake seems to be constrained by factors both internal and external to the household and related to the policy and legislative environment. This paper examines the impact of these factors on farmers’ decisions to plant trees. Cameroon is used as a case to analyse whether existing policies and legislation governing trees support or discourage tree planting, using qualitative content analyses. Although their mission papers and statements suggest most national government policies in Cameroon address tree planting and agroforestry, actual legislation designed to follow up the policies mostly contradicts the poverty reduction goals. Often legislation and regulations are more conservation-oriented and do not provide a clear procedure to distinguish between products from trees found in the wild and those gathered from farmers’ fields.     

Evaluation of cytokines and hormones in dogs before and after treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis and in uncomplicated diabetes mellitus

In human beings, diabetes mellitus (DM) and diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) are recognized as proinflammatory states and dysregulation of cytokines has been linked to some potentially fatal complications. Cytokine profiles of dogs with DM or DKA have not been reported. The objectives of this study were to compare cytokine and hormone concentrations in dogs with DKA before and after resolution of ketoacidosis, to compare these concentrations before treatment of DKA to those measured in dogs with uncomplicated DM and healthy dogs, and to compare concentrations in dogs with uncomplicated DM to those measured in healthy dogs. 27 dogs were included in this prospective clinical study. 18 dogs had naturally-occurring disease (9 DKA and 9 DM) and 9 dogs were healthy. Serum GMCSF, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-7, CXCL8, IL-10, IL-15, IL-18, IFNγ, IP-10, TNFα, Monocyte Chemoattractant Protein-1 (MCP-1), Keratinocyte Chemoattractant (KC), glucagon, leptin, adiponectin, and resistin were assayed using Milliplex MAP Canine kits.(2)(,)(3) IL-18, resistin, and GMCSF concentrations were significantly higher in dogs with DKA before treatment compared to after resolution of ketoacidosis. CXCL8, MCP-1, KC, and resistin were significantly higher in DKA dogs compared to healthy controls, and KC was also significantly higher in DKA compared to DM dogs. Additionally, CXCL8 and MCP-1 were significantly higher in dogs with DM compared to healthy controls. Significant differences were not detected in concentrations of the other measured analytes, including glucagon. It is concluded that IL-18, resistin, GMCSF, and KC may be involved in the pathogenesis of canine DKA, and their importance in this pathogenesis may be as great as that of glucagon. Dysregulation of CXCL8 and MCP-1 may be involved in the pathogenesis of DM in dogs.     

Vegetative and reproductive performance of maize to nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers in Plinthic Acrisol and Gleyic Plinthic Acrisol

Soil specific maize response to N and P may provide guidelines for improving nutrient management. Three replicates of N and P fertilizer combinations (N₀P₀, N₀P₉₀, N₁₂₀P₀, and N₁₂₀P₉₀) were arranged in randomized complete block design on Plinthic Acrisol (PA) and Gleyic Plinthic Acrisol (GPA) in Ghana. Treatment effects on maize plant height and yield parameters were assessed. Plant height differed consistently with N₁₂₀P₉₀ > N₀P₉₀ > N₁₂₀P₀/N₀P₀ from 3 to 7?weeks after planting on the GPA. On the GPA, grain yield ranged from 1.20 to 2.40 t ha^?1 and increased by 10, 77 and 95% in the N₁₂₀P₀, N₀P₉₀ and N₁₂₀P₉₀, respectively. Residual effect of N₀P₉₀ and N₁₂₀P₉₀ increased maize yields on the GPA than on the PA. Rather than N, P was more critical to maize performance and should be externally supplied not exceeding the critical level of N₀P₆₀ (Plinthic Acrisol) and N₀P₉₀ (Gleyic Plinthic Acrisol) for optimum maize yield.     

Deforestation and Cultivation with Maize (Zea mays L.) has a Profound Effect on the Bacterial Community Structure in Soil

In this study, the effect of deforestation and cultivation of maize (Zea mays L.) on the physicochemical characteristics and the bacterial community structure in soil were studied at the national park Área de Protección de Flora y Fauna Nevado de Toluca in Mexico. Soil was sampled from three forested areas in the national park, from three deforested areas grazed by animals and from three areas cultivated with maize. The soil was characterized chemically and biologically, whilst the bacterial community structure was investigated through 454 pyrosequencing of the 16S rRNA gene. The pH in the forest soil decreased from 6·1 to 5·3 in the maize‐cultivated soil, whilst the soil organic C content decreased 1·4 times in the arable soil compared with the forest soil. The microbial biomass C decreased 2·9 times in the arable soil compared with the forest soil, but the metabolic quotient qCO₂ (ratio basal respiration to microbial biomass C) nearly doubled. Deforestation and maize cultivation reduced the abundance of Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria and Bacteroidetes, whereas Acidobacteria, Chloroflexi, Gemmatimonadetes and Firmicutes were resistant to these changes. It was found that soil characteristics were affected negatively by deforestation and nearly half of the organic matter was lost, and on these sloped fields, erosion will be high, further decreasing soil fertility. Although the relative abundance of a number of bacterial groups was reduced by deforestation, others were not affected by land‐use change. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Emerging paradigms in immunonutrition

Nutritional immunology is the study of the relationship between food and the immune system. It evolved with the study of immune deficiencies caused by malnutrition. However, because of technological advances made over the past few decades, malnutrition is no longer the main cause of lowered immune status in otherwise healthy people/animals. Rather, life stage (neonate or old age) and natural stressors have taken over as the primary cause for immune deficiency. Unlike malnutrition, immune deficiency due to life stage or natural stress cannot be addressed by correcting underlying nutritional problems. Lowered immune status because of life stage or naturally occurring stress is characterized by reduced capacity to process and present foreign antigens to immune cells, resulting in a less efficient or altered immune response that leads to increased susceptibility to infections and an increase in autoimmunity and cancers. Beyond providing essential nutrients, diet can actively influence the immune system. Over 65% of the immune cells in the body are present in the gut, making the gut the "largest immune organ." Receptors present on the immune cells in the gut are the primary targets for immunomodulation via diet. Diet interacts with the immune system at multiple levels, starting with providing basic nutrients, then moving on to providing higher levels of key nutrients such as protein, vitamins, and minerals, and leading to a more focused modulation of the immune system. A framework outlining this interaction, along with relevant examples, will be discussed.     

Combination of Piper guineense Essential Oil with Cowpea Varietal Resistance in Control of Cowpea Seed Beetle,Callosobruchus maculatus Fabricius (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Bruchinae)

To reduce the risks associated with over-dependence on synthetic insecticides and ensure leguminous food security,an experiment was conducted to evaluate the potentials of integrating Piper guineense essential oil(Pg EO)with cowpea varietal resistance in the control of cowpea seed beetle,Callosobruchus maculatus Fabricius.Four cowpea varieties(Sokoto,Drum,Oloyin and Gwallam)were studied.Data collected included oviposition,progeny emergence,Reproductive Efficiency(RE)and Percentage Seed Damage(PSD).At first filial generation,numbers of eggs laid on Oloyin variety treated with 25μL Pg EO per 25 g cowpea seeds(2.15)were significantly(p0.05)lower than the values obtained in untreated cowpea(3.61)and hexane-treated seeds(3.07).C.maculatus RE on Oloyin(33.73)was significantly(p0.05)lower than values obtained on other varieties(47.34-54.67)for seeds without Pg EO;and were significantly greater than 0.00 observed on Oloyin seeds treated with 50μL PgE O.PSD on Oloyin(6.63%)was significantly(p0.05)lower than the values obtained on Sokoto(10.04%)and Drum(9.79%)for seeds without Pg EO,while there was no damage in Oloyin treated with 50μL Pg EO.Significantly(p0.05)lower F2 progeny emergence occurred on Oloyin(4.02)and Sokoto(4.71)compared with Drum(9.03)and Gwallam(6.07)from the untreated cowpea seeds.The results implied that application of PgE O to Oloyin gave better protection from infestation of C.maculatus than other varieties.Hence,combination of varietal resistance with PgE O for management of bruchid could be an effective mean of improving cowpea food security.     

Influence of year and genetic factors on chilling injury susceptibility in peach (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Prunus persica</Emphasis> (L.) Batsch)

Chilling injury (CI) is a major physiological problem limiting consumption and export of peach and nectarine (Prunus persica (L.) Batsch). To clarify the genetic basis for chilling injury, inheritance of the major CI symptoms mealiness, flesh browning, flesh bleeding, and flesh leatheriness were examined over three years in two related peach progenies. In addition, genetic relationships among traits and the year-to-year variation in trait performance in these progenies were tracked. Both populations also segregated for Freestone-Melting flesh (F-M) and yellow flesh. There were significant differences in CI symptoms among years. The major gene endoPG, which controls the F-M locus, provides resistance to mealiness in non-melting flesh fruit. Only fruit with melting flesh can develop mealiness if the tree possesses other genetic susceptibility factors and/or experiences inducing conditions. The F-M locus also greatly influences susceptibility to flesh bleeding, although the physiological mechanism for this disorder is unclear and may be controlled by a different gene closely linked to endoPG. Unlike mealiness, flesh bleeding occurred primarily in non-melting flesh fruit, particularly when the fruit is white-fleshed. Flesh browning incidence was greater in mealy fruit and was not associated with flesh bleeding. Breeding for CI resistance is thus a viable long-term strategy to reduce losses in the fresh and processed peach and nectarine industries. This study is an important first step to understanding genetic control of CI symptoms in peach.     

Comparative effect of slow and rapid freezing on sperm functional attributes and oxidative stress parameters of goat spermatozoa cryopreserved with tiger nut milk extender

Comparative effect of slow and rapid freezing on sperm functional attributes and oxidative stress parameters of goat spermatozoa cryopreserved with tiger nut milk (TNM) extender was examined in this study. Pooled semen samples obtained from West African Dwarf (WAD) goat bucks were diluted with Tris‐based extenders containing different levels of TNM (0, 5, 10, 15 and 20 ml/100 ml extender). The diluted semen samples were subjected to slow and rapid freezing for a period of 7 days and thereafter evaluated for sperm functional attributes (percentage motility, acrosome integrity, membrane integrity, abnormality and livability) and oxidative stress (malondialdehyde [MDA] concentration and acrosin activity) parameters. Results showed that higher (p < 0.05) motility, livability, membrane and acrosome integrities in semen cryopreserved with slow freezing compared to rapid freezing. These parameters (motility, livability and membrane integrity) were higher (p < 0.05) in semen cryopreserved with 15% TNM in both slow and rapid freezing protocols. The results revealed that semen cryopreserved in slow freezing had lower (p < 0.05) abnormality compared to rapid freezing. Acrosin activity was higher in slow freezing compared to rapid freezing. Acrosin activity was higher at 15% TNM in both slow and rapid freezing. Lower (p < 0.05) MDA concentration was observed in semen cryopreserved using slow freezing compared to rapid freezing. The findings revealed improved post‐thaw sperm functional attributes and oxidative stress parameters of WAD goat spermatozoa cryopreserved with 15% TNM using slow freezing.