Effect of time of spraying of glyphosate on the vegetation of an upland deep peat soil

The vegetation of an upland deep peat soil consisting mainly of Festuca rubra, Holcus mollis, Molinia caerulea, Juncus acutiflorus and Potentilla erecta was sprayed with 1·5 kg a.i. per ha glyphosate applied to separate plots at monthly intervals from April to August. In July of the following year, April and May applications showed no effect on sward composition while June, July and August treatments resulted in increasing proportions of mosses and bare ground. August spraying gave almost complete control of the indigenous species with the exception of F. rubra and mosses. The results are discussed in relation to the establishment of improved pastures in upland areas by surface seeding.     

Seed development and seed shedding in North Italian ecotypes of Lolium multiflorum

Seed development and seed shedding were studied in seven populations of Lolium multiflorum. Five of these populations were from the North Italian Plains, two from the Piedmont area and three from the Lombardy region. The remaining populations were Delecta, a variety derived from ecotypes from the Lombardy Plain, and RvP Lemtal. Seed shedding was greatest in the three ecotypes from the Lombardy Plain and lowest in RvP Lemtal. The two ecotypes from the Piedmont Plain, and Delecta, gave intermediate values. Moisture loss during ripening was greatest in the Lombardy ecotypes but there were no differences in the time taken to reach maximum 1000-seed weight. Germination values had reached a maximum 27 d after anthesis in all populations. It is suggested that the North Italian ecotypes, or varieties derived from them, should be harvested by direct combining at a moisture concentration of 450 g kg^-1 (≡45%) to obtain the maximum weight of germinable seed.     

Effects of grazing by lambs in autumn on a red clover-perennial ryegrass sward

In 1976, 1977 and 1978 a red clover-perennial ryegrass sward was cut twice for silage, and in the autumn of 1976 and 1977 it was either grazed at low and high stocking rates, i.e. seventeen and thirty-four lambs per ha respectively, or was cut with a forage harvester. The effects of grazing on yield in the following year were examined. Herbage growth in the grazing period was slow and did not differ significantly between the treatments. The yield of silage dry matter taken in May and July was highest in ungrazed plots (9·8 and 8·1 t ha^-1 in 1977 and 1978 respectively) and lowest in plots stocked at the high rate (5·9 and 5·7 t ha^-1 in 1977 and 1978 respectively). The aftermath yield for grazing in 1977 was slightly but significantly greater on treatments grazed in the previous year compared with ungrazed treatments. Red clover content decreased markedly during grazing, the high stocking rate treatment containing 2·4% clover and the ungrazed treatment 57·3% clover. The high stocking rate treatment also had the lowest red clover content in the first silage cut. Red clover content in grazed plots increased to a level similar to that in ungrazed plots by the start of the grazing period in the subsequent harvest year. Animal performance was higher at the low than at the high stocking rate but herbage consumption per head did not differ significantly between the two grazing treatments. Possible reasons for the adverse effect of grazing on the red clover are defoliation and treading. It is concluded that such experiments can form the basis of an economic assessment of red clover and help the farmer decide whether or not he should integrate the crop into his system.     

Regrowth of ryegrass swards subject to different cutting regimes and stocking densities

A cutting experiment was carried out on a sward of S23 perennial ryegrass to study the effect of different defoliation regimes on regrowth and the factors affecting regrowth. The defoliation frequencies and intensities encompassed the range commonly found on continuously stocked pastures. The defoliation regimes produced swards of contrasting growth form with regrowth characteristics which differed in respect of senescence loss, fall in water-soluble carbohydrate concentration, residual leaf area index, photosynthesis per unit leaf area index and photosynthesis per unit area of land. Regrowth was most closely related to the latter. These results were used to interpret data for net canopy photosynthesis of continuously grazed pastures.     

Influence of dietary protein and energy on growth,food consumption and food conversion efficiency in Penaeus merguiensis de Man

The requirement of juvenile Penaeus merguiensis for dietary protein and energy was assessed in growth trials performed in indoor recirculation systems using rations based on freeze-dried Mytilus edulis meal. From the results of these experiments evidence was obtained to indicate that the rate of food consumption in this prawn is related to the energy content of the diet. The implications of this are that the protein level required to support maximum growth and optimum protein conversion efficiency are also energy dependent. Optimum protein levels were estimated in the range 34.0–42.0% for diets of energy content 2.9–4.4 kcal/g. A possible scheme relating food consumption, energy production and growth in P. merguiensis is presented.     

A preliminary study on the protein requirements of Chanos chanos (Forskal) fry in a controlled environment

Milkfish (Chanos chanos) fry with an average weight of 40 mg per fish were stocked in 60-l wooden-glass aquaria filled with 30 l of filtered sea water with a salinity of 32–34 p.p.t. and a temperature of 25–28°C. They were fed diets containing 20, 30, 40, 50 and 60% protein and 2740 kcal of digestible energy per kg at a daily rate of 10% of the biomass for a period of 30 days. Fish which were fed the diet containing 40% protein had the highest weight gain which was significantly higher (P < 0.05) than those of fish receiving the lower dietary levels of protein. Slightly lower weight gains were obtained when fish were fed diets containing 50 and 60% protein. Although feed conversion values were not statistically different (P < 0.05) among all treatments, the value for the 40% protein diet (1.96) was the best. The mean survival rates were low for all treatments but was highest for the 40% protein diet. No significant difference (P < 0.05) was found in the survival rates of fish receiving different treatments. Results show that a dietary level of 40% protein was required by milkfish fry for maximum growth, efficient feed conversion and high survival rate.     

Relations between stratigraphy,geomorphology and soils in Coastal Plain areas of Southeastern U.S.A.

Small infiltrometers were used to measure infiltration rates into strongly and maderately developed compound prisms, sampled individually from surface layers of two dry clay soils. Initially, both rates were equally high but after three hours a higher rate was measured for the moderately developed compound prisms. These data were used to interpret adsorption and outflow phenomena of water in undisturbed, large and initially dry soil cores (diameter 20 cm) sampled from the upper 20 cm of the two soils, following application rates of about 8 mm/h and 28 mm/h. The two soils adsorbed an average of 6.4 mm water before the start of discharge, independent of the applied intensity. They discharged water at a constant and high rate for several hours, allowing adsorption of about 10% of the applied water. This represents a high degree of “short-circuiting” for all treatments, except one: adsorption was 40% at the 28 mm/h rate for the soil with the moderately developed prisms. The moisture content in the transmission zone was not constant as it would have been in homogeneous soil but increased regularly as a function of time. Slow wetting of both soils through a crust, followed by rain with an intensity of 30 mm/h, resulted in the adsorption of only about 3% of the applied rain in both soils.In general, more effective wetting of a dry clay surface soil at a given rainfall intensity is initially associated with less “short-circuiting” to deeper horizons. However, the resulting higher moisture content allows less adsorption in the surface layer and is therefore associated with increased “short-circuiting” thereafter, as long as large vertical pores have not been closed by swelling.     

Physical factors influencing decomposition of organic materials in soil aggregates

Glucose or starch labelled with ¹⁴C was mixed thoroughly into slurried soils. Aggregates of different sizes were obtained from the soils as they dried. The labelled substrates were considered to be distributed in both micro- and macropores in the aggregates. Control samples (labelled substrates in macropores only) were prepared by adding the labelled carbohydrates after the formation of the aggregates. The various samples were sterilized by γ-irradiation and stored at ?15°C.Samples were wetted to about ?20kPa, inoculated with soil organisms, and incubated for 4 weeks at 28°C in closed systems, which enabled regular measurement of ¹⁴CO₂ released.Based on the ¹⁴CO₂ released, it was concluded that starch was protected from microbial attack when present in micropores in aggregates made from fine sandy loam.After incubation samples were dried and rewetted. The flush of ¹⁴CO₂ released was twice as big for samples containing labelled starch compared with glucose, showing that disruption of aggregates, containing residual starch, and rearrangements of soil components are as important as chemical and biological factors in causing the flush of CO₂ resulting from wetting a soil. Mechanical disruption of the aggregates resulted in a similar flush of ¹⁴CO₂.     

Autolysis of chlamydospores of Fusarium solani f. sp. cucurbitae in chitin and laminarin amended soils

Lysis of chlamydospores of Fusarium solani f. sp. cucurbitae is enhanced both in chitin and in laminarin amended soils. In soil amended with both chitin and laminarin, lysis of chlamydospores resembles that in control soil. Addition of chitin and laminarin to soil stimulates the growth of both bacteria and actinomycetes. In soils amended with chitin and with both chitin and laminarin, a chitinolytic microflora is stimulated. Penetration of chlamydospore cells by soil microorganisms has not been observed using the electron microscope. The mechanism of lysis of chlamydospores in soil is discussed.     

The wildlife preferences shown by countryside visitors

This study presents the data from part of a questionnaire survey in the Dalby Forest Area, Yorkshire, England. Of nearly 200 species mentioned, visitors hoped prior to their visit that they would see roe deer, badgers, foxes, squirrels, rabbits, pheasants, woodpeckers, kingfishers and adders, but the survey indicated that what they had in fact seen was very different. The number of times that visitors mentioned five groups of wildlife (mammals, birds, plants, trees and insects) altered with four different questions used, indicating that the degree of interaction that a visitor had with these groups varied at different physical, aesthetic and emotional levels.