Virtual water: Virtuous impact? The unsteady state of virtual water

“Virtual water,” water needed for crop production, is now being mainstreamed in the water policy world. Relying on virtual water in the form of food imports is increasingly recommended as good policy for water-scarce areas. Virtual water globalizes discussions on water scarcity, ecological sustainability, food security and consumption. Presently the concept is creating much noise in the water and food policy world, which contributes to its politicization. We will argue that the virtual water debate is also a “real water” and food and agricultural policy debate and hence has political effects. Decisions about food strategies and resource allocation play out on the national political economy, benefiting some while harming others. Therefore, a policy choice for virtual water is not politically neutral. “Real␣water” interventions are, likewise, inspired by economic as well as political considerations like control of the countryside, geopolitical strategy, and food sovereignty (independence from international political conditionality and market uncertainties). To illustrate these ideas, we look into case studies of Egypt and the State of Punjab in India. In India, a debate on the merits and demerits of a virtual water strategy is now emerging. In Egypt, which switched to food imports in the early 1970s, a long-standing taboo on debating virtual water is now being relaxed.

D-Gluconic Acid: Isolation from the Defensive Secretion of the Cockroach Eurycotis decipiens

The major water-soluble constituent of the defensive secretion of Eurycotis decipiens was identified as gluconic acid, isolated in the form of calcium D-gluconate. The acid, in equilibrium with its lactones, is present in unusually high concentration.     

Lithium-Sodium Beta Alumina: First of a Family of Co-ionic Conductors?

Lithium-sodium beta alumina having a lithium/sodium ratio greater than about I appears to be the first generally useful lithium superionic conductor that has been reported. It exhibits strikingly nonlinear ion exchange properties and may presage the discovery of similar co-ionic interactions in other superionic conductors. The properties of lithium-sodium beta alumina are discussed in relation to current concepts of ionic interaction and distribution in the beta alumina conduction plane.     

Viroid-induced phosphorylation of a host protein related to a dsRNA-dependent protein kinase

Viroids are very small, unencapsidated RNAs that replicate and induce severe disease in plants without encoding for any proteins. The mechanisms by which the viroid RNA regulates these events and interacts with host factors are unknown. An Mr 68,000 host-encoded protein has been identified that is differentially phosphorylated in extracts from viroid-infected and mock-inoculated tissues. This phosphoprotein is immunologically related to a double-stranded (ds) RNA-dependent protein kinase from virus-infected, interferon-treated human cells. Further, nucleotide photoaffinity labeling indicates that the protein has an ATP binding site. This protein is similar to dsRNA-dependent protein kinases implicated in mammalian systems in the regulation of protein synthesis and virus replication.     

Allomorphic forms of bacteriophage phiX-174 replicative DNA

The bacteriophage ?X-174 replicative form of DNA exists in two configurations, as judged by electron microscopy and sucrose density gradient sedimentation, and on methylated albumin-coated kieselguhr column chromatography.The predominant 21S form of the DNA is a tightly twisted circle. Treatment with deoxyribonuclease causes a single scission in one of the two strands, resulting in an open circle which sediments at 16S.     

Chromosomal integration and expression of the Escherichia coli K88 gene cluster in Salmonella enterica ser. Choleraesuis strain 54 (SC54)

Attempts to develop live vaccines to protect against enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) infection by induction of both cell-mediated and mucosal immunity, and serum antibody responses have included use of recombinant Salmonella strains that produce K88 fimbrial antigens (Hone et al., 1988; Attridge et al., 1988; Morona et al., 1994). However, none of the recombinant Salmonella vectors has been licensed by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) for use as a live vaccine in pigs in the United States. A variant of Salmonella enterica ser. Choleraesuis strain 54 (SC54) is currently used as a safe and effective intranasal attenuated live vaccine in pigs. In order to expand the efficacy of this live vaccine strain, we sought to modify strain SC54 to express the K88 antigens of ETEC. To accomplish this, a plasmid-based system was used to integrate the K88 gene cluster into the chromosome of strain SC54 by site-specific recombination. The K88 antigens were expressed by strain SC54, and the gene cluster was stably maintained in the host.     

Activation of bovine neutrophils by recombinant bovine tumor necrosis factor-alpha

The in vitro effect of bovine recombinant tumor necrosis factor-alpha (rbTNF-alpha) on bovine neutrophil function and the possibility that rbTNF-alpha and recombinant bovine interferon-gamma (rbIFN-gamma) act synergistically were investigated. Treatment of neutrophils with rbTNF-alpha (0.05 micrograms/ml; approximately 50 U/ml) at 37 degrees C for 2.5 h resulted in enhancement of antibody independent neutrophil-mediated cytotoxicity (AINC) and inhibition of random migration and chemotaxis. The same treatment resulted in a slight decrease in iodination and cytochrome C reduction, but did not affect Staphylococcus aureus ingestion, or antibody dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity. Kinetic and inhibitor studies indicated that the action of rbTNF-alpha was rapid and was independent of protein and RNA synthesis by neutrophils. Evaluation of the synergistic activities of rbTNF-alpha and rbIFN-gamma indicated that treatment of neutrophils with these two cytokines simultaneously resulted in additive enhancement of AINC and inhibition of random migration and chemotaxis. There was no additive effect of the two cytokines on inhibition of iodination or cytochrome C reduction.     

Protein Composition‐Functionality Relationships for a Set of Argentinean Wheats

Relationships between flour functional properties and protein composition were studied using a set of 138 Argentinean wheat samples. Among different protein groups, the incremental increase of gliadin with increasing grain protein content was highest followed by polymeric protein with albumin‐globulin content much lower. Functional properties could be divided into two groups based on dependence on protein composition. Properties such as dough extensibility and bake test loaf volume correlated highly with the percentage of polymeric protein in the grain. Properties such as mixograph dough development time were best correlated with the percentage of polymeric protein in the protein (PPP). Alveograph tenacity showed no significant dependence on PPP. as found previously for extensigraph maximum resistance, but it was correlated with the percentage of unextractable polymeric protein in the protein. Energy (W) appeared to be a more useful alveograph parameter for predicting flour quality.