Physiological experiments on bolting of sugar beet

Plant Foods for Human Nutrition -     

Molecular characterization of the incitant of cowpea bacterial blight and pustule, Xanthomonas campestris pv. vignicola

Strains of Xanthomonas campestris pv. vignicola (Xcv), isolated from cowpea leaves with blight or minute pustules and collected from various geographic areas, were selected on the basis of pathological and physiological features. All strains were analyzed for genotypic markers by two methods: ribotyping with EcoRI endonuclease, and RFLP analysis with a plasmid probe (pthB) containing a gene required for pathogenicity from Xanthomonas campestris pv. manihotis. Ribotyping revealed a unique pattern for all the strains that corresponded to the previously described ribotype rRNA7. Based on polymorphism detected by pthB among Xcv strains, nine haplotypes were defined. The observed genetic variation was independent of the geographic origin of the strains and of pathogenic variation. Some haplotypes were widely distributed, whereas others were localized. In some cases, we could differentiate strains isolated from blight symptoms and pustules according to haplotypic composition. However, in most cases, no significant differences were observed. Our results and the previous pathogenic and biochemical characterizations suggest that the strains isolated from leaves with blight symptoms or minute pustules belong to the same pathovar. We provide information on pathogen diversity that can be used to identify and characterize resistant germplasm.     

Effect of red wine marinades on the formation of heterocyclic amines in fried chicken breast

Genotoxic heterocyclic amines (HAs) are formed via the Maillard reaction and free radical reaction mechanisms when meat or fish is cooked at usual cooking conditions. In this paper, the effect of the addition of red wine was tested to study if it interferes in HA formation. Fried chicken breast was the food item chosen, and three different red wines, characterized in terms of grape varieties, free amino acids, antioxidant properties, and metallic composition, were used to marinate meat prior to the heating process. Unmarinated samples and samples marinated with an ethanol-water mixture provided reference HA levels. The frying experiments were performed under well-controlled temperature and time conditions. The samples were analyzed for HA content using solid-phase extraction and LC-MS/MS. DMIP, PhIP, MeIQx, 4,8-DiMeIQx, IFP, TMIP, harman, and norharman were identified in fried chicken breast. Red wine marinades were found to reduce the formation of some of the HAs formed. PhIP, with a reduction of up to 88%, was the most minimized amine, although the formation of harman was enhanced.     

The Application of Multivariate Statistical Methods for the Evaluation of Soil Profiles (8 pp)

Background, Aim and Scope   Contamination of soils does not only occur on their surface over large areas, but also in depth. Therefore a characterization of soil state after pollution demands a three-dimensional soil sampling, by what a large number of samples has to be analyzed. Analytical results could be evaluated by multivariate statistical methods, which have already been used for the evaluation of data sets containing results from soil sampling of two dimensions like areas or single profiles. In this case study, multivariate statistical methods were applied to investigate structure and interactions between features in a data set containing results of three-dimensional soil sampling. The investigated soil profiles were contaminated by emissions of a former cement and phosphate fertilizer plant. The aim of this study was to determine the remaining extent of contamination and to analyze whether pollutants are mobilized and vertically transported within the profiles. Materials and Methods: Three soil profiles were sampled in the surroundings of the plant. Grain size, organic and carbonatic bonded carbon, pH value, and the total contents of Ca, Cd, Co, Cu, F, Fe, K, Mn, Mg, Na, Ni, P, Pb, and Zn were determined. The resulting data set was evaluated by cluster analysis, linear discriminant analysis, and principal components analysis. The sequential extraction procedure according to Zeien and Brümmer was applied to analyze the binding properties of Ca, Cd, Cu, Na, Pb, and Zn from selected samples. Results: Cd was identified as contaminant of the top soils. The pH values of the bottom soils were determined to be in alkaline range, which is unnaturally high. Variables were clustered according to enrichment of variables in top soils. The samples were classified regarding their pollution state and their substrate by cluster analysis, which was confirmed by linear discriminant analysis. Geogenic and anthropogenic sources of variables as well as relationships between variables like the binding of heavy metals at organic matter were detected by using principal components analysis. The binding of heavy metals at organic matter in the top soils was confirmed by the results of the applied sequential extraction. A vertically altered distribution of Na binding was determined. Discussion: According to the current soil conditions, the uptake of heavy metals had probably occurred by the over ground part of plants during the deposition. The distribution of Na should likely result from the vertical transport of Na, which would also explain the high pH values of the bottom soils by ion exchange. Altogether, the main amount of deposited Ca, F, Na, P, and heavy metals is likely nearly insoluble bound in the top soils. Conclusions: Ten years after the end of production, the pollution of top soils in the surroundings of the former plant is still high. However, regarding the ecotoxicological relevance the now explored interactions between several soil features and elements strongly indicate that there is no short-term to medium-term risk of a mobilization of the deposited elements with the exception of Na. Recommendations and Perspectives: The results of this case study prove that multivariate statistical methods are powerful tools to explore interactions of variables and relationships in a data set derived from three dimensional soil sampling. The methods applied in this work can be highly recommended for evaluations of large data sets resulting from two- or three-dimensional samplings. Multivariate statistical methods enable the characterization of soils and their pollution state in a simple and economic way.     

Breast-feeding at 12 months of age and dietary habits among breast-fed and non-breast-fed infants

OBJECTIVE: To analyse factors associated with breast-feeding and use of sweetened drinks at 12 months, and to compare dietary habits among breast-fed and non-breast-fed infants. DESIGN: Data were collected by a semi-quantitative food-frequency questionnaire filled in by the parents. SETTING: National dietary survey in Norway. SUBJECTS: In total, 1932 12-month-old infants were included. RESULTS: At 12 months, 36% of the infants were breast-fed. The odds of breast-feeding at this age were more than doubled both for mothers > or =35 years compared with mothers <25 years and for mothers in the highest educational group compared with mothers in the lowest. A negative association was found for maternal smoking, and the odds of breast-feeding were 40% lower for mothers who smoked than for non-smokers. Some dietary differences were observed between breast-fed and non-breast-fed infants apart from intake of milk. In particular, breast-fed infants had a significantly lower daily intake of sweetened drinks than non-breast-fed infants and a 16% lower mean daily intake of added sugars (P<0.001). Furthermore, breast-fed infants had 30% higher odds of not receiving sweetened drinks daily, compared with non-breast-fed infants. CONCLUSIONS: Maternal age, education and smoking status were important factors for breast-feeding at 12 months. Breast-fed infants had lower intakes of sweetened drinks and added sugars than non-breast-fed infants. From a public health perspective, continued promotion of breast-feeding is needed to reduce inequalities in breast-feeding. Moreover, prevention of high intakes of sweetened drinks and added sugars should start in infancy.     

The influence of genotype on the effects of impact damage on the accumulation of glycoalkaloids in potato tubers

Summary The effects of impact damage on the accumulation of glycoalkaloids in tubers were studied in a wide range of potato genotypes. Damage, caused by drop tests, resulted in increased glycoalkaloid levels, which sometimes exceeded the toxic limit of 20 mg/100 g fresh weight; there were large differences in levels between genotypes. When the total damage index was high, the severe damage types—shatter cracks and splits—were responsible for the initiation of glycoalkaloid synthesis in stressed tuber tissue, whereas the less severe damage types—bruises and black spot—were not. Genotypes which had the highest shatter crack indices often had the greatest increases in glycoalkaloids. The high correlation between the initial glycoalkaloid level and the increased level after damage showed that selection for low glycoalkaloid potato clones is important.

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Zusammenfassung Der Einfluss von Stossverletzungen auf die Glykoalkaloide in Knollen wurde an 18 bis 21 Sorten und Zuchtklonen untersucht. Die Knollen liess man von 150 cm H?he (1981) bzw. 100 cm H?he (1982) herabfallen, um Stossverletzungen unterschiedlicher Typen (Schwarzfleckigkeit, Quetschungen, Schlagrisse, Brüche) und unterschiedlicher St?rke hervorzurufen. Der Gehalt an Glykoalkaloiden (α-Solanin und α-Chaconin) wurde an unbehandelten und besch?digten Knollen bestimmt. In unbehandeltem Material wurden wechselnde Glykoalkaloidgehalte aufgefunden (Tab. 1). Die Falltests ergaben grosse Sorten-differenzen hinsichtlich der Verletzungsemp-findlichkeit. Eine Fallh?he von 150 cm verursachte hohe Indizes für die Gesamtbesch?digung (Tab. 2). Unter den einzelnen Besch?digungs-typen waren Brüche und Schlagrisse am h?ufigsten. Der Glykoalkaloidgehalt erh?hte sich signifikant in den Knollen mit Stossverletzungen, und in einer Sorte wurde die toxische Schwelle von 20 mg/100 g Frischgewicht überschritten (Tab. 1). Die Glykoalkaloidbildung war signifikant korrelliert mit dem Schwellenwert in unbehandelten Knollen. Sorten und Klone mit den h?chsten Schlagriss-Indizes zeigten die gr?ssten Zunahmen. Eine zweimalige Fallbehandlung ergab h?here Verletzungsindizes und die Glykoalkaloidgehalte stiegen weiter an. Die Werte schwankten dabei zwischen 4 und 53 mg Glykoalkaloid/100 g Frischgewicht. Drei Sorten/Klone überschritten 20 mg/100 g und drei andere waren nahe an der toxischen Schwelle. Eine Fallh?he von 100 cm bewirkte auff?llig niedrigen Anteile an Stossverletzungen (Tab. 3). Schwere Verletzungenstypen, z.B. Schlagrisse und Brüche, waren hier nicht so h?ufig als weniger schwere, wie Quetschungen und Schwarzfleckigkeit. Der Glykoalkaloidgehalt war verglichen mit demjenigen in unbehandelten Knollen nur geringfügig h?her (Tab. 1). Das Glykoalkaloidniveau der besch?digten Knollen war gut korrelliert mit dem ursprünglichen Niveau, es stand aber weder zum Gesamtindex der Stossverletzungen noch zum Index irgendeines besonderen Besch?digungstyps in Beziehung. Der Grund dafür lag vermutlich in der geringen Anzahl von Verletzungen, insbesondere in der geringen H?ufigkeit von Schlagrissen. Eine zweimalige Fallbehandlung erh?hte signifikant den Gesamtverletzungsindex und die H?ufigkeit der Quetschungen. Dabei ergab sich ein geringer Zuwachs an Glykoalkaloiden mit einer sortenbedingten Differenz von 2–20 mg/100 g Frischgewicht. Der Glykoalkaloidgehalt war jedoch nicht korrelliert mit dem Index der gesamten Stossverletzungen oder, vielleicht mit Ausnahme der Quetschungen, mit dem Index irgendeines besonderen Besch?digungstyps. Die Untersuchung zeigte, dass schwere Stossverletzungen eine Erh?hung des Glykoalkaloidgehaltes in Kartoffelknollen verursachen. Die Pflanzenzüchtung ist ein m?glicher Weg, um die Resistenz gegenüber mechanischen Besch?digungen zu erh?hen, wenngleich stets eine sorgf?ltige Behandlung notwendig ist, um die Besch?digungsh?ufigkeit in der Handelsware zu reduzieren. Die hohe Korrellation zwischen dem ursprünglichen Glykoalkaloidniveau und dem erh?hten Niveau nach der Besch?digungsinduktion zeigt, dass es wichtig ist, Kartoffelklone mit geringem Glykoalkaloidgehalt zu selektieren.

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Résumé L'influence des endommagements par impacts sur les glycoalcalo?des dans les tubercules a été étudiée sur 18–21 variétés et clones de sélection. Les différents types d'endommagements (noircissement interne, meurtrissures, cavernes et fissures) ainsi que leur gravité sont analysés après une chute des tubercules d'une hauteur de 150 et 100 cm, respectivement en 1981 et 1982. La teneur en glycoalcalo?des (α-solanine et α-chaconine) est déterminée dans les tubercules n'ayant subi aucun traitement et dans les tubercules endommagés. Une grande variété de teneurs en glycoalcalo?des est observée dans les tubercules non endommagés (tabl. 1). Les tests d'impacts ont montré des différences variétales importantes, quant à la sensibilité à l'endommagement. La hauteur de chute de 150 cm a causé des indices d'endommagements élevés (tabl. 2). Les fissures et les cavernes sont les types d'endommagements les plus fréquents. La teneur en glycoalcalo?des augmente de fa?on significative dans les tubercules endommagés et pour une variété, le seuil de toxicité de 20 mg/100 g de poids frais est dépassé (tabl. 1). La réponse dans la formation de glycoalcalo?des est correlée de fa?on significative à la teneur initiale, dans les tubercules non endommagés. Les variétés et clones qui présentaient le plus grand nombre de cavernes ont eu les augmentations les plus fortes. Les traitements comprenant deux chutes ont donné les indices d'endommagements les plus élevés et des teneurs en glycoalcalo?des encore plus importantes. Celles-ci variaient entre 4 et 53 mg/100 g de poids frais. Trois variétés/clones ont dépassé les 20 mg pour 100 g et trois autres étaient très proches de ce seuil de toxicité. La hauteur de chute de 100 cm a conduit à des niveaux d'endommagements beaucoup plus faibles (tabl. 3). Les types d'endommagements graves, c'est-à-dire les cavernes et les fissures, furent moins fréquents que les autres types d'endommagements moins graves: les meurtrissures et le noircissement interne. Il n'y eut qu'une légère augmentation des teneurs en glycoalcalo?des, comparée à celles des tubercules non endommagés (tabl. 1). Le niveau de glycoalcalo?des dans les tubercules endommagés est fortement correlé au niveau initial, mais n'est pas lié à l'indice total d'endommagements ni à l'indice d'un quelconque type d'endommagement. Ceci est probablement d? au faible niveau d'endommagement et notamment à la faible quantité de cavernes. Les traitements comprenant deux chutes ont donné un indice total d'endommagements plus élevé avec davantage de meurtrissures. La teneur en glycoalcalo?des a légèrement augementé, avec des différences variétales de 2–20 mg/100 g de poids frais. Toutefois, les glycoalcalo?des ne furent pas correlés à l'indice total ou à l'indice d'un des types d'endommagements, excepté peut être les meurtrissures. Cette recherche montre que les endommagements graves par impacts provoquent l'augmentation des teneurs en glycoalcalo?des dans les tubercules de pomme de terre. La sélection des variétés est un moyen pour augmenter la résistance des tubercules à l'endommagement, bien que des précautions dans les manutentions sont nécessaires pour réduire les fréquences d'impacts des pommes de terre de commercialisation. La forte corrélation entre le niveau initial de glycoalcalo?des et son augmentation après endommagement montre que la sélection des clones à faible teneur en glycoalcalo?des est importante.

     

Management Zones Classified With Respect to Drought and Waterlogging

Within-field variations in potential grain yield may be due to variations in plant available soil water. Different water holding capacities affect yield differently in different years depending on weather. By estimating plant-water availability in different weathers, scenarios could be created of how yield potential and thereby fertilizer demand may vary within fields. To test this, measured cereal grain yields from a dry, a wet and an intermediate year were compared with different soil moisture related variables in a Swedish arable field consisting of clayey and sandy areas. Soil water budget calculations based on weather data and maximum plant available water (PAW), estimated from soil type and rooting data, were used to assess drought. A reasonable correlation between estimated and measured soil moisture was achieved. In the dry year, drought days explained differences in yield between the clayey and the sandy soil, but yield was better explained directly by maximum PAW, elevation, clay content and soil electrical conductivity (SEC). Yield correlated significantly with SEC and elevation within the sandy soil in the dry year and within the clayey soil in the wet year, probably due to water and nitrogen limitation respectively. Dense SEC, elevation and yield data were therefore used to divide the field into management zones representing different risk levels for drought and waterlogging. These could be used as a decision support tool for site-specific N fertilization, since both drought and waterlogging affect N fertilization demand.     

Pathogenicity determinants in smut fungi revealed by genome comparison

Biotrophic pathogens, such as the related maize pathogenic fungi Ustilago maydis and Sporisorium reilianum, establish an intimate relationship with their hosts by secreting protein effectors. Because secreted effectors interacting with plant proteins should rapidly evolve, we identified variable genomic regions by sequencing the genome of S. reilianum and comparing it with the U. maydis genome. We detected 43 regions of low sequence conservation in otherwise well-conserved syntenic genomes. These regions primarily encode secreted effectors and include previously identified virulence clusters. By deletion analysis in U. maydis, we demonstrate a role in virulence for four previously unknown diversity regions. This highlights the power of comparative genomics of closely related species for identification of virulence determinants.