Relationships between disease levels on seed tubers,on crops during growth and in stored potatoes. 1. Introduction and black scurf

Summary In the Introduction general methods are described to assess inocolum of several potato diseases on seed tubers; on the progeny tubers during growth, at harvest and after 4 different storage regimes. Assessments were made in up to 26 commercial King Edward crops in each of 5 years, and up to 13 crops from ‘healthier’ seed, derived from stem cuttings, in 4 years. Results are reported from the work on black scurf (Rhizoctonia solani). Stem canker incidence was more closely related to the incidence of sclerotia on seed tubers than was the frequency ofRhizoctonia hyphae on growing tuber surfaces. Incidence of sclerotia on stored tubers was better related to the amount of surface colonization during growth than that of stem canker. Assessments on harvested and stored progeny of ‘healthier’ seed were correlated with those on adjacent commercial crops, indicating spread or, more likely, a common source of inocolum.

---

Zusammenfassung In einer Studie wurde das Auftreten verschiedener Krankheiten im Erntegut der Sorte King Edward untersucht, die zwischen 1971 und 1975 in dem Fenland-Gebiet von Ostengland gewachsen war. Jedes Jahr wurden zwischen 15 und 26 Proben von Marktware untersucht und zwischen 1972 und 1975 wurde ‘gesünderes’ Pflanzgut (das von Stecklingen abstammte) auf dem selben Feld wie einige der Proben der Marktware gepflanzt (Tab. 1). Die Feststellung des Inokulums oder der Krankheit wurde an Pflanzgutproben, an Pflanzen w?hrend des Wachstums und an Knollen der Nachkommenschaft zum Erntezeitpunkt genommen. Geerntete Knollen wurden auch einheitlich verletzt und bei 3°C und 10°C gelagert, mit oder ohne zweiw?chige Wundheilperiode bei 15°C. Nach 3–4 Monaten erfolgte die Feststellung des Krankheitsbefalls. Die Auswertung der Ergebnisse wurde durch Regression zwischen allen m?glichen Paaren der Ergebnisse für jede Krankheit durchgeführt, wobei jedes Jahr sowohl getrennt als auch alle Jahre kombiniert genommen wurden. Die Regressionen wurden auch für das ‘gesündere’ Erntegut, das mit der entsprechenden Marktware übereinstimmte, durchgeführt. Rhizoctonia solani wurde auf dem Pflanzgut und auf dem nachfolgenden Erntegut als Prozentbefall mit Sklerotien angegeben, der Myzelbelag auf der Knollenoberfl?che rund um die Augen wurde durch mikroskopische Untersuchung von Augenstücken festgestellt und das Auftreten von Weisshosigkeit wurde w?hrend des Wachstums gesch?tzt. Das durchschnittliche Auftreten von Inokulum oder Krankheitsbefall auf Marktware (Tab. 2) zeigte, dass 1975 der Befall der Augen am h?ufigsten war und dass 1971 und 1975 der Krankheitsbefall im Lager am gr?ssten war. ‘Gesünderes’ Pflanzgut hatte gew?hnlich weniger Pocken als der Durchschnitt der Marktware aber der Befall der Augen der Tochterknollen w?hrend des Wachstums und zur Ernte war gr?sser und auf gelagerten Knollen wurden mehr Pocken gefunden (Tab. 3). Unter den nassen Erntebedingungen 1974 traten mehr Pocken auf den bei 10°C gelagerten Knollen auf als auf den bei 3°C, aber es ergaben sich keine Unterschiede in anderen Jahren. Die Signifikanz der Regressionen zwischen den Erhebungen, die nach verschiedenen Methoden oder zu verschiedenen Zeitpunkten (Tab. 4) gemacht wurden und Diagramme der signifikanten Regressionen in einzelnen Jahren (Abb. 1) zeigten, dass makroskopische und mikroskopische Bestimmungen auf dem Pflanzgut (Abb. la) und Befall der Schale rund um die Augen und Weisshosigkeit w?hrend des Wachstums (Abb. 1d) in allen Jahren miteinander verbunden waren. Die Weisshosigkeit stand h?ufiger in Beziehung zum Ausmass des Pockenbesatzes des Pflanzgutes (Abb. 1b) als der Befall der Augen (Abb. 1c). Dies führt zu der Annahme, dass die meisten Stengelinfektionen vom Inokulum des Pflanzgutes ausgingen w?hrend der Befall der Schale rund um die Augen auch durch andere Inokulumquellen (z.B. den Boden) beeinflusst wurden. Der Befall der Augen zur Ernte stand in jedem Jahr in Beziehung zum Befall w?hrend des Wachstums (Abb. 1e) und in 4 Jahren stand das Ausmass des Pockenbesatzes auf gelagerten Knollen in Beziehung zum Augenbefall w?hrend des Wachstums und zur Ernte (Abb. 1f und 1g). Die mikroskopische Untersuchung w?hrend des Wachstums gibt daher eine vernünftige Sch?tzung des Krankheitsbefalls im Lager. Wenn die Erhebungen des ‘gesünderen’ Pflanzgutes mit denen gleichartiger Marktware verglichen wurden (Abb. 2), ergaben sich signifikante Verbindungen für den Augenbefall w?hrend des Wachstums und zur Ernte, für den Pockenbesatz auf gelagerten Knollen, aber nicht für die Weisshosigkeit. Dies weist auf eine Verbreitung des Inokulums, auf die Bedeutung der allgemeinen Bodenbeschaffenheit oder, wahrscheinlicher, eine gemeinsame Quelle des Inokulums, vielleicht im Boden hin.

---

Résumé Une étude a été entreprise sur la variété King Edward, pour conna?tre l'incidence de différentes maladies. Cette étude s'est déroulée de 1971 à 1975 dans la région de Fenland en Angleterre Orientale. Chaque année, on a examiné entre 15 et 26 lots commerciaux; entre 1972 et 1975 des semences ‘plus saines’ (provenant de bouturage) ont été plantées dans le même champ que les lots commerciaux (tableau 1). Les estimations d'inoculum ou de maladie ont été faites sur des échantillons de tubercules de semence, sur des plantes en course de croissance, et sur les tubercules-fils à la récolte. Les tubercules-fils récoltés ont été également endommagés de manière uniforme et conservés à 3°C et 10°C, avec ou sans période initiale de cicatrisation des blessures de 2 semaines à 15°C. L'incidence de la maladie a été estimé après 3–4 mois. Les résultats ont été analysés par régressions entre toutes les paires possibles de données pour chaque maladie, en prenant séparément chaque année et toutes les années combinées. Les régressions ont aussi été faites à partir des estimations provenant des lots ‘plus sains’, et des estimations correspondantes provenant des lots commerciaux adjacents. L'estimation du rhizoctone a été faite par notation du pourcentage de sclérotes sur les tubercules de semence et sur les tubercules-fils en conservation. La colonisation de la peau, autour des yeux, par du mycelium deRhizoctonia solani a été déterminée par examen microscopique au niveau des yeux. L'incidence des nécroses sur tige a été estimée au cours de la croissance. L'incidence moyenne de l'inoculum ou de la maladie sur les lots commerciaux (tableau 2) a montré que la colonisation du tubercule au niveau des yeux a été plus fréquente en 1975, et que l'incidence de la maladie en cours de conservation a été plus forte en 1971 et 1975. Les tubercules de semence ‘plus saine’ ont eu moins de rhizoctone que la moyenne des lots commerciaux, mais la colonisation des tubercules-fils, au niveau des yeux pendant la période de croissance et à la récolte a été plus grande. On a également trouvé plus de sclérotes sur les tubercules conservés (tableau 3). En 1974, les conditions de récolte étant plus humides, il y avait plus de sclérotes sur les tubercules conservés à 10°C que sur ceux conservés à 3°C; mais, pour les autres années, il n'y avait aucune différence entre les traitements. La signification des régressions entre les estimations faites par différentes méthodes ou à différentes époques (tableau 4), et les graphiques relatifs aux régressions significatives pour chacune des années (Fig. 1) ont montré qu'il y avait toutes les années des relations entre les estimations macroscopiques et microscopiques sur la semence (Fig. 1 a), la colonisation de la peau autour des yeux et les nécroses des tiges en cours de végétation (Fig. 1d). Les nécroses sur tige étaient plus fréquemment en rapport avec les sclérotes portés par la semence (Fig. 1b) qu'ac la colonisation au niveau des yeux du tubercule (Fig. 1c). Les auteurs suggèrent donc que la plupart de la contamination de la tige provient de l'inoculum présent sur le tubercule de semence mais que la colonisation de la peau autour des yeux est également influencée par d'autres sources d'inoculum (par ex. le sol). Chaque année, la colonisation des yeux à la récolte était en relation avec celle en cours de croissance (Fig. 1c). Pour les 4 années, la quantité de sclérotes sur les tubercules conservés était en rapport avec l'incidence de la colonisation au niveau des yeux pendant la croissance et à la récolte (Figures 1f et 1g). Les estimations faites en cours de croissance donne donc une estimation correcte de l'incidence de la maladie en cours de conservation. Quand on compare les résultats des lots ‘plus sains’ et ceux des lots commerciaux adjacents, il y a des associations significatives pour la colonisation des yeux durant la croissance et à la récolte, pour les sclérotes sur les tubercules conservés, mais pas pour les nécroses sur tige. Ceci suggère la dispersion de l'inoculum, l'importance des conditions de sol ou plus vraisemblablement la présence d'une source commune d'inoculum au niveau du sol.

     

Effect of nano-SiO2 on properties of wood/polymer/clay nanocomposites

Wood polymer nanocomposites (WPNC) based on nano-SiO₂ were prepared by impregnation of styrene acrylonitrile copolymer (SAN), SiO₂ nanoparticles modified with γ-trimethoxy silyl propyl methacrylate (MSMA), and nanoclay into wood. The structure of modified SiO₂ nanoparticles and WPNC was characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). XRD analysis showed the delaminated structure of SAN/SiO₂/clay-treated wood composites. The synergistic effect of nano-SiO₂ and nanoclay was investigated. Thermal stability of SiO₂ nanoparticles decreased after modification, while that of wood treated with SAN, SiO₂, and nanoclay improved. Morphological characteristics were examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Mechanical properties, water uptake (%), dimensional stability, hardness, and flammability were found to improve due to incorporation of SiO₂ and nanoclay into wood polymer composites. Maximum improvement in properties was observed in the wood polymer composites containing SiO₂ and nanoclay at the ratio of 1:1.     

Variation of pathotypes and races and their correlations with clonal lineages in Verticillium dahliae

Understanding pathogenic variation in plant pathogen populations is key for the development and use of host resistance for managing verticillium wilt diseases. A highly virulent defoliating (D) pathotype in Verticillium dahliae has previously been shown to occur only in one clonal lineage (lineage 1A). By contrast, no clear association has yet been shown for race 1 with clonal lineages. Race 1 carries the effector gene Ave1 and is avirulent on hosts that carry resistance gene Ve1 or its homologues. The hypothesis tested was that race 1 arose once in a single clonal lineage, which might be expected if V. dahliae acquired Ave1 by horizontal gene transfer from plants, as hypothesized previously. In a diverse sample of 195 V. dahliae isolates from nine clonal lineages, all race 1 isolates were present only in lineage 2A. Conversely, all lineage 2A isolates displayed the race 1 phenotype. Moreover, 900‐bp nucleotide sequences from Ave1 were identical among 27 lineage 2A isolates and identical to sequences from other V. dahliae race 1 isolates in GenBank. The finding of race 1 in a single clonal lineage, with identical Ave1 sequences, is consistent with the hypothesis that race 1 arose once in V. dahliae. Molecular markers and virulence assays also confirmed the well‐established finding that the D pathotype is found only in lineage 1A. Pathogenicity assays indicated that cotton and olive isolates of the D pathotype (lineage 1A) were highly virulent on cotton and olive, but had low virulence on tomato.     

Temporal patterns of growth hormone in blood and seminal plasma of mature dairy bulls

This study was conducted to determine if growth hormone (GH) concentration in bovine seminal plasma would be proportional to but less variable than blood plasma GH. The relationship between GH in blood and seminal plasma was also examined critically. Blood samples were collected at 15-min intervals for 5.75 h, while semen was collected at 30-min intervals over the same time period. Average seminal plasma GH concentrations were 3.2 times higher (P less than .05) than blood plasma GH concentrations (40.4 +/- 15.8 ng/ml vs 12.6 +/- 1.2 ng/ml, respectively). The within animal correlation between blood and seminal plasma was consistently low and nonsignificant (P greater than .05). Overall blood plasma GH and seminal plasma GH concentrations were weakly correlated (r = .418; P greater than .05) among bulls. A predictable relationship between blood and seminal plasma GH concentration does not exist under the conditions of this study.     

Serum antibody isotype responses of Fasciola-infected sheep and cattle to excretory and secretory products of Fasciola species

This study investigated the immunoglobulin isotype responses of sheep and cattle chronically infected with Fasciola hepatica and Fasciola gigantica to adult F. hepatica excretory/secretory products (Fh-ES) or F. gigantica excretory/secretory products (Fg-ES), respectively. An antibody enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (Ab-ELISA) was used to determine serum antibody (total Ig, IgG(1), IgM, IgG(2) and IgA) responses. At necropsy, the mean number of flukes recovered was lower in cattle than in sheep. All F. hepatica and F. gigantica infected sheep and cattle showed an increased total Ig levels from 3 to 4 weeks post-infection (wpi). Among isotypes IgG(1) was most dominant while IgM was the earliest (2 wpi) to be detected in both sheep and cattle infected with both F. hepatica and F. gigantica animals. IgG(2) response was early (2 wpi) in sheep infected by F. hepatica but there was no response in sheep infected with F. gigantica. There was a late and strong IgG(2) response in cattle infected with both flukes. The IgA isotype showed an early and a clear biphasic response in sheep with F. hepatica but was less pronounced in F. gigantica infected sheep. While IgA response to Fh-ES was noticed 5 wpi in F. hepatica infected cattle, it appeared much later (21 wpi) in those infected with F. gigantica. The dominance of IgG(1) isotype in infected sheep and cattle suggest an associated Th2 response. This early response to adult Fasciola spp. ES antigen suggests an early exposure to the antigen presumably through the cross-reacting ES products of juvenile flukes. There is clearly difference in IgG(2) isotype response in cattle (resistant) compared to sheep (susceptible). The late IgG(2) response in cattle may suggest late Th1 involvement in bovine cellular responses to adult Fh-ES/Fg-ES.     

Evaluation of genetic and non-genetic factors on foot and mouth disease (FMD) virus vaccine-elicited immune response in Hardhenu (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Bos taurus</Emphasis> x <Emphasis Type="Italic">Bos indicus</Emphasis>) cattle

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is the most contagious disease of mammals and a major threat to animal husbandry sector. In India, vaccination with the inactivated trivalent (O, A and Asia1) vaccine is one proven way for protecting the livestock from FMD. However, many outbreaks have been reported in different parts of the country. Therefore, present study was aimed at elucidating the effects of genetic and non-genetic factors on FMD viral vaccine-elicited immune response in Hardhenu cattle. The effect of season of vaccination was not consistent. The effect of status of animal was significant for all the pre and post AB titres except for pre AB titre of serotype O and post AB titre of Asia1.The estimates of heritability for response to vaccination were low to high ranging from 0.11 to 0.45. The highest heritability estimate was obtained for serotype O and the lowest for Asia1. The heritability estimates for pre and post AB titres ranged from 0.15 to 0.33. All the pre and post AB titres and responses to vaccination had genetic correlations ranged from high negative to high positive among them. Results of this study highlight the variation in vaccine response which needs to be further exploited on large-scale animal data for better immunization and protection against highly contagious viral vesicular disease of cloven-hoofed animals.     

Achieving food and nutritional security through agroforestry: a case of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Faidherbia albida</Emphasis> in sub-Saharan Africa

Faidherbia albida is an ideal agroforestry tree commonly intercropped with annual crops like millet and groundnuts in the dry and densely populated areas of Africa. With its peculiar reverse phenology, it makes growth demands at a different time from that of crops. In addition, it deposits great amount of organic fertilizer on food crops. Leaves entering soils are comparable to fertilization of almost 50 t·ha 1 ·year 1 of manure in dense stands of 50 large trees per ha. These nutrients help maximize agricultural production and reduce the need for a fallow period on poorer soils. Research has shown that millet grown under F. albida yielded 2.5 and 3.4 fold increases in grain and protein, respectively. Animals eat pods which contain mean amounts of crude protein of 20.63% and carbohydrate of 40.1% in seeds. Moreover, the continued existence of F. albida in agroforestry parklands as in Ethiopia and Mali signifies the success of traditional conservation measures. Modern scientists have also developed much interest in the role of agroforestry in maintaining long-term biological balance between agriculture and livestock production systems. To ensure food security, which still remains a major challenge in sub-Saharan Africa, and concurrently minimize environmental degradation, promotion of agroforestry that specifically involves indigenous trees is crucial. We discuss the prospective role of F. albida in alleviating poverty while simultaneously protecting the environment from factors associated with, for example, deforestation and loss of biodiversity. The overall aim is to promote wide-scale adoption of F. albida as a valuable tree crop in farming systems, particularly in those areas where it remains unexploited.     

Proteolytic activities in dormant rye (Secale cereale L.) grain.

Endoproteolytic, exoproteolytic, carboxypeptidase, aminopeptidase, and N-alpha-benzoyl-arginine-p-nitroanilide hydrolyzing activities were detected in 0.05 M sodium acetate buffer (pH 5.0) extracts of whole meal of the rye (Secale cereale L.) varieties Amando, Halo, and Humbolt. The proteolytic enzymes of Humbolt, the variety with the highest proteolytic activity, optimally hydrolyzed hemoglobin around pH 3.5 and 40-45 degrees C. In the different milling fractions of Humbolt, azocasein and hemoglobin hydrolytic activities were especially found in the bran and shorts. Proteolytic enzymes in the bran extract were concentrated in the 35-60% ammonium sulfate precipitate. Pepstatin A, an inhibitor of aspartic proteases, reduced approximately 88 and approximately 75% of the hemoglobin and azocasein hydrolyzing activities of this precipitate, respectively. Phenylmethanesulfonyl fluoride, an inhibitor of serine proteases, inhibited approximately 33% of both cited activities. Both rye and wheat storage proteins were degraded by Humbolt rye whole meal enzyme extract and the above-mentioned ammonium sulfate rye bran fraction in vitro. With the latter fraction digestion was more pronounced.