Identity: key to children's understanding of belief

Is knowledge structured and acquired as independent facts and concepts, as parcels of independent domains, or as domains that share conceptual abilities? For an answer, we looked at the development of two concepts, belief and identity. These concepts are not part of the same domain, but the application of both depends on the common ability to separate sense from reference. We show that both capacities become functional between the ages of 3 and 5 years, which provides empirical support for the contention that deep conceptual structures play an important role in cognitive development.     

Collembola succession on deposits from a chemical factory

Primary succession of collembolan communities was studied on deposits of a former factory producing nitric, sulphuric, and muratic acids and soda at Petrovice u Karviné, NE Moravia, Czech Republic, in 1978–1979. Chemically loaded deposits were 15, 25 and 60 years old in 1979 and a primary succession without plant re-cultivation took place there. The succession was delayed on small humps and slopes where the deposited substrate was covered by terrestrial algae, lichens and mosses. A total of 4871 specimens of Collembola containing 78 species from 23 sampling sites were evaluated. The quantitative species data were analysed using TWINSPAN and CANOCO programs. Coenotic similarity was determined with a polythetic classification produced by two-way indicator species analysis performed for log (n+1) transformed quantitative data. Collembolan communities were composed of 3–23 species in densities from 1300 to 80,700 ind·m². Lower species number (3–9) in low densities and low diversity occurred on sites with the initial stages of succession covered with algae, lichens and mosses. Collembolan species typical of early succession included Mesaphorura atlantica, Hypogastrura assimilis, Schoettella ununguiculata and Doutnacia xerophila. The succession on two different deposit substrates converged in more advanced stages to a collembolan community including Mesaphorura hylophila, Parisotoma notabilis, Lepidocyrtus lanuginosus, Folsomia quadrioculata and F. lawrencei as typical species. Species such as Isotomiella minor, Megalothorax minimus and Friesea mirabilis entered the succession only in the most advanced stage of the 60 years old deposit. The absence of F. mirabilis was probably connected with the missing aquatic soil microfauna (Nematoda, Tardigrada, Rotatoria) in the chemically unfavourable substrates of the less advanced succession stages.     

Comparison of RAPD, STS, ISSR and AFLP molecular methods used for assessment of genetic diversity in hop (Humulus lupulus L.)

CoxI genomic and cDNA sequences from gymnosperms and angiosperms were used to study the effects of RNA editing on gene evolution and phylogenyre construction. In six gymnosperms harboring edited coxI gene the number of nucleotide substitutions at 1^st, 2^nd and 3^rd codon positions was similar. In contrast, in angiosperms, the number of nucleotide substitutions at 1^st and 2^nd codon positions was much lower than at the 3^rd. The coxI gene in long-lived gymnosperms evolved much faster than in annual angiosperms. This accelerated rate of nucleotide substitution in gymnosperms is due to accumulation of T-C substitutions at edited sites that can randomly appear at all three codon positions. Editing predominantly occurred at 1^st and 2^nd codon positions as a result of selection against non synonymous T-C substitutions and other types of mutations. The tree topologies for the investigated species based on genomic DNA data were in concordance with their taxonomic positions. The trees based on polymorphic edited sites agreed with trees derived from complete sequence information. This indicates that edited sites are reliable sources of phylogenetic information especially for species that contain many edited sites. However, the fast evolution rate of coxI gene in gymnosperms has caused the long branches in the phylogenetic trees. The inclusion of the species with a processed paralog i.e., edited form of the coxI gene, affected the topology of phylogenetic trees, especially when the taxon with a processed paralog was closely related to the other species analyzed. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Copper Uptake, Physiology and Cytogenetic Characteristics in Three Matricaria chamomilla Cultivars

Selected physiological parameters and copper uptake by three chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla) cultivars (two tetraploid????Lutea?? and ??Unknown?? and one diploid????Novbona??) exposed to 60 ??M Cu over 7 days were studied. Genome size was 10.6 and 5.5 pg DNA/2C and chromosome number 2n?=?36 and 2n?=?18 in tetraploids and diploid, respectively. Root tissue water content and dry biomass were more reduced in diploid cultivar. Soluble proteins were depressed by Cu excess in all cultivars without respect to ploidy. Lignin accumulation and cinnamylalcohol dehydrogenase activity was the highest in Novbona. Phenylalanine ammonia-lyase activity was stimulated in tetraploid but reduced in diploid roots. Diploid contained higher amount of Cu and soluble phenols in both shoots and roots. Sulphur-containing amino acids were stimulated in Cu-exposed shoots independently on ploidy level. Potassium content was more reduced in the diploid cultivar. Our data indicate that induction of phenolic metabolism is faster in diploid cultivar which also contained higher amount of Cu. In this view, polyploidisation is a good tool for the reduction of shoot metal accumulation and growth tolerance to Cu excess. Identity of Czech tetraploid cultivar ??Unknown?? is also discussed.     

Organic matter decomposition and carbon content in soil fractions as affected by a gradient of labile carbon input to a temperate forest soil

Labile carbon (C) input to soils is expected to affect soil organic matter (SOM) decomposition and soil organic C (SOC) stocks in temperate coniferous forests. We hypothesized that the SOM...     

Production of giant mouse oocyte nucleoli and assessment of their protein content

Compared with advanced developmental stage embryos and somatic cells, fully grown mammalian oocytes contain specific nucleolus-like structures (NPB - nucleolus precursor bodies). It is commonly accepted that they serve as a store of material(s) from which typical nucleoli are gradually formed. Whilst nucleoli from somatic cells can be collected relatively easily for further biochemical analyses, a sufficient number of oocyte nucleoli is very difficult to obtain. We have found that isolated oocytes nucleoli fuse very efficiently when contact is established between them. Thus, well visible giant nucleoli can be obtained, relatively easily handled and then used for further biochemical analyses. With the use of colloidal gold staining, we estimated that a single fully grown mouse oocyte nucleolus contains approximately 1.6 ng of protein. We do believe that this approach will accelerate further research aiming at analyzing the composition of oocyte nucleoli in more detail.     

Seasonal colonisation of apple trees by ‘Candidatus Phytoplasma mali’ revealed by a new quantitative TaqMan real-time PCR approach

Apple proliferation (AP), caused by ‘Candidatus Phytoplasma mali’, is an economically important disease affecting many apple-growing areas in Europe. A new TaqMan real-time PCR assay was established for absolute quantification of ‘Ca. P. mali’ by using a single-copy gene of the host plant as a reference, which is amplified with the pathogen DNA in a single-tube reaction. Normalised estimates of phytoplasma concentration are ultimately expressed as the number of phytoplasma cells per host plant cell. The assay was used to monitor the ‘Ca. P. mali’ titre over the course of two growing seasons in roots and branches of symptomatic and asymptomatic but AP-positive apple trees. All 252 root samples from symptomatic and asymptomatic trees tested positive, with an average number of 59.8 ± 5.68 (standard error) and 55.1 ± 9.83 ‘Ca. P. mali’ per host cell, respectively. From the 378 shoot samples analysed, 81% of the symptomatic and only 20% of the asymptomatic samples were AP-positive with an average number of 9.4 ± 1.04 and 0.7 ± 0.13 ‘Ca. P. mali’ per host cell, respectively. This strengthens evidence that not the pathogen occurrence alone but the presence of a certain quantity of ‘Ca. P. mali’ in the aerial tree sections is involved in symptom expression. In addition, pronounced seasonality of the phytoplasma concentration was found, not only in branches, but also for the first time in roots of symptomatic and asymptomatic apple trees. Highest phytoplasma levels in roots were detected from December to May.