Marketing of Bay Leaf in Nepal and Northern India: Lessons for Improving Terms of Participation of Small Farmers in Markets

Non-timber forest product commercialisation requires information on what and who is involved in markets, but this is rarely documented. This paper presents the findings of a study to assess the structure and dynamics of markets for bay leaf (Cinnamomum tamala Nees and Eberm) in Nepal and in Uttarakhand state in India. Data were collected from key informant interviews with stakeholders from the governments of the two countries, research agencies, user groups and traders associations, from focus group discussion involving 100 farmers and district and wholesale level traders, and from stakeholder meeting and interviews with traders using an open-ended questionnaire in the two countries. It was found that of the 2,500 tons of bay leaf traded in Nepal in 2009, 86 % was exported to India. The total size of the bay leaf market in Uttarakhand is estimated at 1,470 tons, with the spice industry as the main consumer. Nepalese bay leaf sustains the demand in Indian markets that were studied. Processing of leaves into essential oil and powder by wholesale traders takes place in Nepal and India respectively, but no regional trade in essential oil was observed. Three quality grades are sold in markets which are not known to the farmers. The bay leaf trade is increasing, creating an opportunity for farmers to engage in its cultivation. There is a need for transferring market information and improving policy implementation to promote transparent and equitable market linkages that enhance benefits to mountain farmers.     

Effects of long-term use of sodic water irrigation, amendments and crop residues on soil properties and crop yields in rice-wheat cropping system in a calcareous soil

One of the options to ameliorate the deleterious effects of sodic water irrigation is to apply gypsum to soil. We examined whether the application of organic manures or crop residue can reduce the need for gypsum in calcareous soils. A long-term field experiment with annual rice-wheat cropping rotation was conducted for 15 years (1991-2006) on a non-saline calcareous sandy loam soil (Typic Ustochrept) in northwestern, India. The irrigation water treatments included good quality canal water (CW) and sodic water (SW) with residual sodium carbonate (RSC) of 10 mmol_c L⁻¹ from 1991 to 1999 and of 12.5 mmol_c L⁻¹ from 2000 onwards. Gypsum was applied at 0, 12.5, 25, and 50% of the gypsum requirement (GR), to neutralize RSC of the SW. Three organic material treatments consisted of application of farmyard manure (FYM) at 20 Mg ha⁻¹, Sesbania green manure (GM) at 20 Mg ha⁻¹, and wheat straw (WS) at 6 Mg ha⁻¹. The organic materials were applied every year to the rice crop. Continuous irrigation with sodic water for 15 years without gypsum or organic materials resulted in a gradual increase in soil pH and exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP), deterioration of soil physical properties, and decrease in yields of both rice and wheat. The cumulative yield loss in SW irrigated plots without gypsum and organic materials remained <1.5 Mg ha⁻¹ for up to eight years in the case of rice and up to nine years in the case of wheat. Thereafter, marked increase in pH and ESP resulted in further depression in yields of rice by 1.6 Mg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ and wheat by 1.2 Mg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹. Application of gypsum improved physical and chemical properties of the soil. The beneficial effects on crop yields were visible up to 12.5% GR in rice and up to 50% GR in wheat in most of the years. All the organic materials proved effective in mobilizing Ca²⁺ from inherent and precipitated CaCO₃ resulting in decline in soil pH and ESP, increase in infiltration rate, and a increase in the yields of rice and wheat crops. Although the application of organic materials resulted in comparable reductions in pH and ESP, the increase in yield with SW was higher for both crops with FYM. Pooled over the last six years (2000-2006), application of FYM resulted in 38 and 26% increase in rice and wheat yields, respectively, over SW treatment; corresponding increases in 50% GR treatment (recommended level) was 18 and 19%. During these years, application of GM and WS increased wheat yields by 20%; for rice, GM resulted in 22% increase compared to 17% in WS amended SW irrigated plots. Combined application of gypsum and organic materials did not increase the yields further particularly in the case of FYM and GM treated plots. This long-term study proves that organic materials alone can be used to solubilize Ca from inherent and precipitated CaCO₃ in calcareous soils for achieving sustainable yields in sodic water irrigated rice-wheat grown in annual rotation. The results can help reduce the dependency on gypsum in sodic water irrigated calcareous soils.     

Relationship of temperament with oestrous behaviour,resumption of ovarian cyclicity and milk yield in post‐partum Murrah buffaloes

This study was designed to investigate the relationship of temperament with oestrus, resumption of ovarian cyclicity and milk yield in post‐partum buffaloes. For this study, 102 post‐partum Murrah buffaloes were observed for temperament in open paddock and during milking. Based on the temperament score (1–5 score), they were classified into docile, slightly restless, restless, aggressive and nervous. Oestrous behaviour was monitored twice daily in all the buffaloes along with milk yield (weekly), body weight (BW) and body condition score (BCS) at day 0, 30, 60 and 90 post‐partum. Based on the temperament score, the number of buffaloes classified as docile, slightly restless, restless and aggressive was 37 (36.27%), 28 (27.45%), 30 (29.41%) and 7 (6.86%), respectively, but none under nervous category. Number of buffaloes resuming cyclicity in various temperaments groups were as follows: docile (n = 35; 94.59%), slightly restless (n = 22; 78.57%), restless (n = 20; 66.67%) and aggressive (n = 7; 85.71%). Temperament was not correlated (p = .128; r=?.152) with oestrous behaviour. But, temperament was correlated (p < .0001; r = .384) with the resumption of cyclicity as docile and slightly restless buffaloes resumed cyclicity (p < .0016) earlier. Temperament of buffaloes was weakly correlated (p = .0017; r=?.306) with milk production with higher (p < .0358) total milk yield in docile (1022 ± 23.75 kg) and slightly restless buffaloes (948 ± 35.86 kg) as compared to other temperament groups. In summary, temperament of post‐partum buffaloes was related with resumption of ovarian cyclicity and milk yield, but not oestrous behaviour.