Multilevel systematic sampling to estimate total fruit number for yield forecasts

Early forecasting of fruit orchard yield is important for market planning and for growers and exporters to plan labour, bins, storage and purchase of packing materials. Large variations in tree yield pose a challenge for accurate yield estimation. We evaluated a three-level systematic sampling procedure for unbiased estimation of fruit number for yield forecasts. In the Spring of 2009 we estimated the total number of fruit in several rows of each of 14 commercial fruit orchards growing apple (11 groves), kiwifruit (two groves), and table grapes (one grove) in central Chile. Survey times were 10–100 min for apples (depending on vigour), 85 min for the table grapes, and 85 and 150 min for the kiwifruit. During harvest in the Fall, the fruit were counted to obtain the true number. Yields ranged from lows of several thousand (grape bunches), to highs of more than 40 000 fruit (apples, kiwifruit). Absolute true errors (defined as the absolute difference between the estimate and the true value, divided by the true value) were less than 5% in six orchards, between 5 and 10% in a further five orchards and 13% in one orchard. In two apple orchards we obtained absolute true errors of about 20%. Error analysis based on systematic sub-sampling across each sampling stage was used to determine how to distribute sampling effort to achieve a total coefficient of error of 10%. We discuss the extension of the procedure for yield estimation at the full orchard scale for any target precision.     

Genetic basis of semen traits and their relationship with growth rate in rabbits

This work aims to estimate the genetic parameters of seminal and production traits in a paternal line of rabbits selected for ADG during the fattening period. The considered traits were male libido (Lib) defined as successful mounting of an artificial vagina; presence of urine (Ur) and calcium carbonate deposits (Ca) in the ejaculate; semen pH; individual sperm motility (IM); the suitability for AI of the ejaculate (Sui), which involves the subjective combination of several quality traits; the average ejaculate volume (Vol); sperm concentration (Conc); and the average sperm production per ejaculate (Prod = Vol × Conc). The genetic relationship between all of these traits with ADG is also provided. Male libido and seminal data came either from routine evaluations of the ejaculates in an AI center or from 2 experiments in which bucks from the same population were used. Two consecutive ejaculates per male and per week were collected, leaving 7 d within weekly collections. A linear tri-trait model was used to analyze Conc, Vol, and ADG, whereas linear and threshold-linear 2-trait models were used to analyze male libido and the remaining seminal traits with ADG. A Bayesian approach was adopted for inference. Approximately 38% of ejaculates were rejected for AI primarily due to low IM scores. Variables related to the quality of the ejaculate (Ur, Ca, pH, IM, Sui) and Lib were found to be lowly heritable (h(2) ranged from 0.04 to 0.11), but repeatable. This indicates performance of bucks for seminal quality traits and libido in AI centers would be more strongly affected by management practices rather than genetic selection. Semen production traits exhibited moderate values of h(2) (0.22, 0.27, and 0.23 for Conc, Vol, and Prod, respectively), suggesting the possibility of effective selection for these traits. A moderate to high negative genetic correlation (r(g); posterior mean; highest posterior density at 95%, HPD(95%)) was estimated between Conc and Vol (-0.53, HPD(95%) = -0.76, -0.27). The ADG was estimated to have an h(2) of 0.16, to have a low, positive r(g) with Conc (0.21, HPD(95%) = -0.03, 0.48), to have a low, negative r(g) with Vol (-0.19, HPD(95%) = -0.47, 0.08), and to be genetically uncorrelated with all remaining traits analyzed. Therefore, selection for increasing ADG in paternal lines is expected to have no detrimental effects on Ur, Ca, pH, IM, Sui, and Lib and little to no effect on Conc, Vol, and Prod.     

Influence of sexually inactive bucks subjected to long photoperiod or testosterone on the induction of estrus in anovulatory goats

The objective of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of treating sexually inactive bucks with artificial long photoperiod or testosterone on the induction of estrus in anovulatory grazing goats. A total of 91 multiparous mixed-breed anestrous goats were randomly assigned to one of three treatment groups: (1) joining with bucks subjected to 2.5 month of artificial long days (16 h of light/day; n = 31), (2) joining with testosterone-treated bucks (n = 30), and (3) joining with untreated bucks (control; n = 30). There were no differences between the light-treated (100%) and testosterone-treated (93%) bucks in their ability to induce estrus in anovulatory does. On the other hand, none of the goats in contact with control bucks exhibited estrus. The interval from start of mating to estrus was shorter in goats with the light-treated bucks (37.9 ± 4.8 h) compared with does in contact with testosterone-treated bucks (58.3 ± 8.7 h). The overall pregnancy rate in goats joined with light-treated, testosterone-treated and control bucks was 84%, 77% and 0%, respectively, with no difference (P > 0.05) between the first two groups. Anogenital sniffing, approaches, mounting attempts, and mounts were highest (P < 0.01) in light-treated bucks and lowest in control bucks. It was concluded that testosterone-treated bucks and long-day-treated bucks were equally effective in synchronizing estrus in anovulatory goats and resulted in similar levels of fertility. Given that light-treated bucks are unviable in communal production systems of goats raised by resource-poor farmers, the sexual arousal of bucks with testosterone is a practical and reliable method to induce ovulation in anovulatory goats in pastoral goat systems in hot environments.     

Seroprevalence and risk factors associated with bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) infection in non-vaccinated dairy and dual purpose cattle herds in Ecuador

A cross-sectional study was carried out to determine the seroprevalence and risk factors associated with Bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) infection in non-vaccinated dairy and dual-purpose cattle herds from Ecuador. A total of 2,367 serum samples from 346 herds were collected from June 2008 through February 2009. A questionnaire, which included variables related to cattle, health, management measures, and the environment, was filled out in each herd. A commercial indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay test was used to determine the seropositivity. A logistic regression model was used to determine risk factors at herd level. The individual seroprevalence for BVDV in non-vaccinated herds in Ecuador was 36.2% (857/2,367; CI_95%, 34.3–38.1%). The herd prevalence was 74% (256/346; CI_95%, 69.4–78.6%) and the intra-herd prevalence ranged between 11.1% and 100% (mean = 51.6%). The logistic regression model showed that the density of cattle farms in the area (more than 70%; OR, 1.94; CI_95%, 1.21–3.2) and the altitude (higher than 2,338 m above sea level; 2.33; CI_95%, 1.4–3.9) are potential risk factors associated with BVDV infection.     

Serosurvey of antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum in white-tailed deer from Northern Mexico

The objective of this study was to determine the seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum in white-tailed deer from Northern Mexico. Sera from 532 white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) from three Northern states of Mexico were assayed for antibodies to T. gondii by ELISA and western blot. From these samples, 368 were available to test for N. caninum antibodies by ELISA. The overall prevalence for T. gondii antibodies was 13.9% (74/532; CI(95) 11-17) and for N. caninum 8.4% (31/368; CI(95) 6-12). There was a significant association between positive ELISA results for T. gondii, with management factors within ranches, such number of deer per hectare and geographic location of deer, but none for N. caninum. T. gondii infection in the deer from Guerrero, Coahuila had an increased risk than those from Nuevo Laredo, Tamaulipas (OR, 8.3; CI(95) 1.9-35.4; P<0.05) and ranches with one deer in 15ha had increased risk of positive association (OR, 2.61; CI(95) 1.5-4.4; P<0.05). These findings may have environmental or public health implications because venison can be an important meat source of T. gondii infections for humans and feral cats.     

Evaluating the efficacy of cinnamaldehyde and Echinacea purpurea plant extract in broilers against Eimeria acervulina

Coccidiostats could be phased out as feed additives before 1 January 2013 for public health and food safety reasons, and, as a replacement, bioactive compounds found in plants are currently being investigated since they are more likely to be found acceptable by consumers. The aim of our study was to evaluate the effect of cinnamaldehyde (CIN) and Echinacea purpurea plant extract (EP) as additives by analyzing the performance traits, oocyst excretion and intestinal lesions following experimental infection with Eimeria acervulina. A total of 72 Ross male broilers were raised from 1 to 35 d and randomly assigned to four dietary treatments: control, without additives (C); 150 mg kg(-1) cinnamaldehyde (CIN); 1000 mg kg(-1)E. purpurea plant extract (EP); 150 mg kg(-1) cinnamaldehyde plus 1000 mg kg(-1)E. purpurea plant extract (CIN+EP). At 25 d, 12 chickens per treatment were orally infected with E. acervulina. Coccidia infestation led to lower performance but with no significant differences between the infected groups. Oocyst output reached its peak from 6 to 9 d post-infection in all treatments. At duodenal level, gross lesion scores were lower for cinnamaldehyde diets (P<0.05). A similar trend was observed in the microscopic lesion scores, with a non-significant reduction as a result of cinnamaldehyde addition (P>0.05). Scoring methods for macro- and microscopic lesions showed a positive linear relationship (G=+0.70). Further studies are necessary to assess the possible anticoccidian action of the cinnamaldehyde and its value as an alternative or adjunct in therapeutic or prophylactic strategies.     

Optimization of a duplex real-time PCR method for relative quantitation of infectious laryngotracheitis virus

Infectious laryngotracheitis is a highly contagious respiratory disease of chickens controlled by biosecurity and vaccination with live attenuated or recombinant vaccines. Infectious laryngotracheitis virus (ILTV) infections are characterized by a peak of viral replication in the trachea followed by a steady decrease in replication that results in the establishment of latency. Estimation of viral load is an important tool to determine the stage of ILTV infection. Here, a multiplex real-time PCR was optimized for the quantification of ILTV genomes. Quantification of viral genomes was based on the amplification of the ILTV UL44 gene, and sample variability was normalized using the chicken (Gallusgallus domesticus) alpha2-collagen gene as an endogenous control in a duplex reaction.     

The highly antigenic 53/25 kDa Taenia solium protein fraction with cathepsin-L like activity is present in the oncosphere/cysticercus and induces non-protective IgG antibodies in pigs

Cathepsin L-like proteases are secreted by several parasites including Taenia solium. The mechanism used by T. solium oncospheres to degrade and penetrate the intestine and infect the host is incompletely understood. It is assumed that intestinal degradation is driven by the proteolytic activity of enzymes secreted by the oncosphere. Blocking the proteolytic activity by an antibody response would prevent the oncosphere penetration and further infection. Serine and cysteine proteases including chymotrypsin, trypsin, elastase, and cathepsin L, are secreted by T. solium and Taenia saginata oncospheres when cultured in vitro, being potential vaccine candidates. However, the purification of a sufficient quantity of proteases secreted by oncospheres to conduct a vaccine trial is costly and lengthy. A 53/25 kDa cathepsin L-like fraction partially purified from T. solium cyst fluid was described previously as an important antigen for immunodiagnostics. In this study we found that this antigen is present in the T. solium oncosphere and is also secreted by the cysticercus. This protein fraction was tested for its ability to protect pigs against an oral challenge with T. solium oncospheres in a vaccine trial. IgG antibodies against the 53/25 kDa cathepsin L-like protein fraction were elicited in the vaccinated animals but did not confer protection.     

Histological and immunohistochemical characterisation of Mycobacterium bovis induced granulomas in naturally infected Fallow deer (Dama dama)

Mycobacterium bovis infections in fallow deer have been reported in different countries and play an important role in the epidemiology of bovine tuberculosis (bTB), together with other deer species. There is little knowledge of the pathogenesis of bTB in fallow deer. The aim of this study was to perform a histopathological characterisation of the granulomas induced by M. bovis in this species and the immunohistochemical distribution of different cell subsets (CD3+, CD79+, macrophages) and chemical mediators (iNOS, TNF-α, IFN-γ) in the different developmental stages of granulomas. Stage I/II granulomas showed a marked presence of macrophages (MAC387+) expressing high iNOS levels while stage III/IV granulomas showed a decrease in the number of these cells forming a rim surrounding the necrotic foci. This was correlated with the presence of IFN-γ expressing cell counts, much higher in stage I/II than in stage III/IV. The number of B cells increased alongside the developmental stage of the granuloma, and interestingly the expression of TNF-α was very low in all the stages. This characterisation of the lesions and the local immune response may be helpful as basic knowledge in the attempts to increase the vaccine efficacy as well as for disease severity evaluation and for the development of improved diagnostic tools. Immunohistochemical methods using several commercial antibodies in fallow deer tissues are described.     

Evaluation of the efficacy of commercial vaccines against bluetongue virus serotypes 1 and 8 in experimentally infected red deer (Cervus elaphus)

Red deer (Cervus elaphus) is a widespread and abundant species susceptible to bluetongue virus (BTV) infection. Inclusion of red deer vaccination among BTV control measures should be considered. Four out of twelve BTV antibody negative deer were vaccinated against serotype 1 (BTV-1), and four against serotype 8 (BTV-8). The remaining four deer acted as unvaccinated controls. Forty-two days after vaccination (dpv), all deer were inoculated with a low cell passage of the corresponding BTV strains. Serological and virological responses were analyzed from vaccination until 28 days after inoculation (dpi). The vaccinated deer reached statistically significant (P<0.05) higher specific antibody levels than the non vaccinated deer from 34 (BTV-8) and 42 (BTV-1) dpv, maintaining stable neutralizing antibodies until 28 dpi. The non vaccinated deer remained seronegative until challenge, showing neutralizing antibodies from 7 dpi. BTV RNA was detected in the blood of the non vaccinated deer from 2 to 28 dpi, whereas no BTV RNA was found in the vaccinated deer. BTV was isolated from the blood of non vaccinated deer from 7 to 28 dpi (BTV-1) and from 9 to 11 dpi (BTV-8). BTV RNA could be identified by RT-PCR at 28 dpi in spleen and lymph nodes, but BTV could not be isolated from these samples. BT-compatible clinical signs were inapparent and no gross lesions were found at necropsy. The results obtained in the present study confirm that monovalent BTV-1 and BTV-8 vaccines are safe and effective to prevent BTV infection in red deer. This finding indicates that vaccination programs on farmed or translocated red deer could be a useful tool to control BTV.