A new astrophysical setting for chondrule formation

Chondrules in the metal-rich meteorites Hammadah al Hamra 237 and QUE 94411 have recorded highly energetic thermal events that resulted in complete vaporization of a dusty region of the solar nebula (dust/gas ratio of about 10 to 50 times solar). These chondrules formed under oxidizing conditions before condensation of iron-nickel metal, at temperatures greater than or equal to 1500 K, and were isolated from the cooling gas before condensation of moderately volatile elements such as manganese, sodium, potassium, and sulfur. This astrophysical environment is fundamentally different from conventional models for chondrule formation by localized, brief, repetitive heating events that resulted in incomplete melting of solid precursors initially residing at ambient temperatures below approximately 650 K.     

Increasing river discharge to the Arctic Ocean

Synthesis of river-monitoring data reveals that the average annual discharge of fresh water from the six largest Eurasian rivers to the Arctic Ocean increased by 7% from 1936 to 1999. The average annual rate of increase was 2.0 +/- 0.7 cubic kilometers per year. Consequently, average annual discharge from the six rivers is now about 128 cubic kilometers per year greater than it was when routine measurements of discharge began. Discharge was correlated with changes in both the North Atlantic Oscillation and global mean surface air temperature. The observed large-scale change in freshwater flux has potentially important implications for ocean circulation and climate.