Assessing spillover from marine protected areas and its drivers: A meta‐analytical approach

Overfishing may seriously impact fish populations and ecosystems. Marine protected areas (MPAs) are key tools for biodiversity conservation and fisheries management, yet the fisheries benefits remain debateable. Many MPAs include a fully protected area (FPA), restricting all activities, within a partially protected area (PPA) where potentially sustainable activities are permitted. An effective tool for biodiversity conservation, FPAs, can sustain local fisheries via spillover, that is the outward export of individuals from FPAs. Spillover refers to both: “ecological spillover”: outward net emigration of juveniles, subadults and/or adults from the FPA; and “fishery spillover”: the fraction of ecological spillover that directly benefits fishery yields and revenues through fishable biomass. Yet, how common is spillover remains controversial. We present a meta‐analysis of a unique global database covering 23 FPAs worldwide, using published literature and purposely collected field data, to assess the capacity of FPAs to export biomass and whether this response was mediated by specific FPA features (e.g. size, age) or species characteristics (e.g. mobility, economic value). Results show fish biomass and abundance outside FPAs was higher: (a) in locations close to FPA borders (<200 m) than further away (>200 m); (b) for species with a high commercial value; and (c) in the presence of PPA surrounding the FPA. Spillover was slightly higher in FPAs that were larger and older and for more mobile species. Based on the broadest data set compiled to date on marine species ecological spillover beyond FPAs' borders, our work highlights elements that could guide strategies to enhance local fishery management using MPAs.     

Inhibitory effect of 2,4-dibromophenol and 2,4,6-tribromophenol on larval survival and metamorphosis of the sea urchin <Emphasis Type="Italic">Strongylocentrotus nudus</Emphasis>

ABSTRACT:   As a possible factor leading to the low recruitment level of sea urchins in kelp forests, the inhibitory effect of 2,4-dibromophenol (DBP) and 2,4,6-tribromophenol (TBP) released from the large perennial brown algae Ecklonia kurome and Eisenia bicyclis on survival and metamorphosis of eight-armed larvae of the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus nudus was examined. The percentage of larvae that underwent metamorphosis in filtered sea water after 1 h exposure to one-half dilution of saturated dibromomethane solution (∼60 ppm) as a chemical inducer reached approximately 100% after 1 h, while that in filtered sea water containing 1 ppm TBP was reduced to 73%. This was further reduced to less than 40% in the presence of 10 and 20 ppm TBP after 2 h. In filtered sea water containing 1 and 10 ppm DBP, the proportion of metamorphosed larvae was reduced markedly to 43 and 5% after 2 h, respectively. All larvae exposed to 50 ppm TBP and to 20 and 50 ppm DBP died after 1 h. These findings suggest that DBP is more toxic than TBP for sea urchin larvae, strongly inhibiting their metamorphosis.     

Toxicity of aqueous aluminium to the ectoparasitic monogenean Gyrodactylus salaris

Both laboratory and field experiments have demonstrated that aqueous aluminium can act as a paraciticide to the monogenean Gyrodactylus salaris Malmberg, 1957 infecting freshwater salmonids. However, the reproductive conditions of gyrodactylids surviving to cessation of an aluminium exposure is unknown. Therefore, Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) parr infected with G. salaris was experimentally exposed to elevated concentrations of aqueous aluminium for more than 1 month. During this period, the infection increased the first week before it peaked and started to steadily decline approaching elimination. When almost all parasite specimens were eliminated, the water quality was adjusted to normal aluminium-poor freshwater. During the next 3 weeks, the surviving G. salaris were shown to clearly resume their reproduction. The experiment demonstrates the potential of the gyrodactylids to reproduce after cessation of an aluminium exposure. Thus, the as-yet unknown mechanism behind the toxic effects of aluminium on G. salaris survival and reproduction might to some extent be reversible. The present study gives further support for this metal as a parasiticide to G. salaris but demonstrates at the same time that in order to eliminate the parasites totally, the aluminium treatment must eradicate all G. salaris from the skin of the infected hosts. Furthermore, the potential development of resistance to aluminium should also be studied.     

Effect of starvation on biochemical composition and gametogenesis in the Pacific oyster <Emphasis Type="Italic">Crassostrea gigas</Emphasis>

The effects of starvation on biochemical composition and gametogenesis were investigated in the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas. Histological analysis, combined with oocyte examination and measurements of protein, glycogen and lipid levels and RNA/DNA ratio from gonad, adductor muscle and mantle tissue of each sex were performed. In the starved groups, C. gigas showed gonad development, but the progress was delayed during the experiment. Glycogen was the first substrate used by C. gigas for dealing with lack of food. While glycogen was rapidly consumed, protein and lipid contents decreased gradually. A decrease in the RNA/DNA ratio in the starved groups in all the body components was found during starvation, illustrating that RNA/DNA ratio was a valid indicator of nutritional condition in C. gigas. A significant increase in water and ash contents and a corresponding decrease in condition index were observed in the starved groups, showing that the water and ash content and condition index were related to the usage of glycogen, lipid and protein reserves in body composition. During starvation, energy reserves were mobilized for survival and gonad development, but spawning was arrested. The information obtained in this study is useful for broodstock management in the Pacific oyster industry.     

Effect of dietary carbohydrate-to-lipid ratios on growth, lipid deposition and metabolic hepatic enzymes in juvenile Senegalese sole (Solea senegalensis, Kaup)

A study was undertaken to determine the effect of various dietary carbohydrate‐to‐lipid ratios on growth performance, whole‐body composition and tissue lipid content in Senegalese sole (Solea senegalensis) juveniles. Data on the dietary regulation of key hepatic enzymes of the lipogenic and glycolytic pathways (glucose‐6‐phosphate dehydrogenase, G6PD; malic enzyme, ME; fatty acid synthetase, FAS; pyruvate kinase, PK and glucokinase, GK) were also generated. Four isonitrogenous (crude protein: 52% dry matter (DM)) diets were formulated to contain one of two lipid levels (11% and 21% DM). Within each dietary lipid level, the nature of the carbohydrate fraction (raw or extruded peas) was varied. Triplicate groups of 54 sole (initial body weight: 23.6±1.2 g) were grown in recirculated seawater over 67 days. Fish were fed using automated feeders. At the end of the study, whole‐body, liver, viscera and muscle samples were withdrawn for analyses. During the experimental period, the mean fish weight about doubled in all treatments. No significant differences were found in growth performance (ranging from 1.1% to 1.4% body weight day^?1) among dietary treatments. High‐fat diets increased whole‐body fat content. Similarly, daily fat gain ranged from 0.54 to 0.78 g kg^?1 day^?1 and highest values were found in fish fed high‐lipid diets. Dietary treatments also affected tissue lipid content (liver, viscera and muscle), with highest values in fish fed high‐fat diets. The nature of dietary carbohydrates had little influence on performance criteria, but affected tissue lipid deposition. The activities of G6PD, ME and FAS were depressed by elevated levels of dietary lipid, confirming the inhibitory effect of dietary fats on lipid biosynthesis. At both dietary lipid levels, ME and FAS activities were little affected by dietary carbohydrate. Activities of PK and GK were not affected by the starch level of the diets. In Senegalese sole juveniles, the lipogenic pathway is more susceptible to modulation by dietary means (particularly through lipid intake) than the glycolytic pathway.     

Relationship between soak time and number of enmeshed animals in experimentally lost gill nets

In order to determine the effects of ghost fishing by lost gill nets, the relationship was examined between soak time and number of enmeshed animals in experimentally lost gill nets by using diving observations. Two experimental gill nets were set at 13 m depth in Tateyama Bay, Chiba Prefecture, Japan for approximately 200 days. One gill net was deployed in a small trough surrounded by artificial reefs, and the other was deployed on an adjacent open sandy bed. Twelve species of crustaceans, six species of gastropods, and five species of bony fish were enmeshed in the experimental gill nets. The number of enmeshed animals in the artificial reef gill net was substantially larger than that in the sandy bed gill net. The number of enmeshed animals in the experimental gill nets increased rapidly within one month after deployment, and then declined gradually showing fluctuations caused by the decrease in newly enmeshed animals, and the drop off from gill nets caused by the decomposition of dead animals. The decrease in the number of enmeshed animals was expressed by logarithmic equations, and based on these equations, the duration of capture function for the lost gill nets was calculated to be 284–561 days in the artificial reef gill net and 200 days in the sandy bed gill net. The duration of capture function for the lost gill nets for non-commercial by-catch species such as small crustaceans and gastropods was longer than for commercial species such as Japanese spiny lobster and bony fish.     

Universal PCR primers for ribosomal protein gene introns of fish

Human ribosomal protein (RP) gene sequences with respect to intron/exon structures and corresponding cDNA or genomic data of fish species were obtained from the GenBank database. Based on conserved exon sequences, 128 primer pairs for 41 genes were designed for exon-primed intron-crossing (EPIC) polymerase chain reaction (PCR). In reference to the draft genome sequences of the Pacific bluefin tuna (Thunnus orientalis), 12 primer pairs expected to amplify introns of the bluefin tuna with lengths of 500–1000 bp were selected and applied to six distantly related fish species belonging to the Orders Clupeiformes, Tetraodontiformes, Pleuronectiformes, Perciformes, Scorpaeniformes, and Anguilliformes. PCR amplification was observed for at least four species in each primer pair, and all fragments were larger than those expected for intronless amplification. Single fragment amplification was observed for at least seven primer pairs per species. Fragment sizes of the bluefin tuna for nine primer pairs corresponded to those expected from the genomic data. Thus, our primer pairs are potentially applicable to a wide variety of fish species and serve as an initial step for isolating single-copy nuclear DNA sequences.     

Morphological development and allometric growth of yellowtail kingfish Seriola lalandi V. larvae under culture conditions

Morphological development and allometric growth patterns of Seriola lalandi larvae were assessed to characterize normal growth patterns under culture conditions. Early ontogenetic stages of yellowtail kingfish exhibited an exponential growth in terms of standard length as a function of age. Five development stages were characterized from hatching to the juvenile stage: larval stage I (0–2 days post hatch, dph) with endogenous feeding, characterized by a small yolk sac, unpigmented eyes, primordial finfold surrounding the body and a closed mouth; larval stage II (2–15 dph) characterized by mouth opening, complete pigmentation of eyes and the beginning of the exogenous feeding; subsequently, in the larval stage III (15–25 dph) the posterior tip of notochord of the larvae bended upward and the first rays appeared in fins, concomitant with a change in swimming behaviour; thereafter, larval stage IV (post‐flexion stage; 25–30 dph) began when larvae resembled in morphology to a juvenile organism; however, caudal and dorsal fins were not completely development. Lastly, the juvenile stage was reached 30 dph characterized by a morphology and fin structures similar to those of the adults. Growth and development of structures and organs associated with vital functions such as feeding, sensorial and breathing systems seemed to be more critical previous to 23 dph, which was reflected with a positive allometric growth of head and eyes during this period. The results from this study can be used as a tool‐guide to assess normal development in larval research with S. lalandi to improve existing rearing protocols in hatchery production.     

Replacement of fish oil with soybean oil in diets for juvenile Chinese sucker (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Myxocyprinus asiaticus</Emphasis>): effects on liver lipid peroxidation and biochemical composition

This study was designed to evaluate the effect of the replacement of fish oil (FO) by soybean oil (SO) on growth performance, liver lipid peroxidation, and biochemical composition in juvenile Chinese sucker, Myxocyprinus asiaticus. Fish (13.7 ± 0.2 g) in triplicate were fed five experimental diets in which 0% (FO as control), 40% (SO40), 60% (SO60), 80% (SO40), and 100% (SO100) FO were replaced by SO. The body weight gain of fish fed SO40, SO60, or SO80 diet was similar to FO group, but diets that have 100% soybean oil as dietary lipid significantly reduced fish growth (P < 0.05). Although the level of SO resulted in increasing crude lipid content of the liver, the level of SO did not significantly alter the hepatosomatic index (HSI). Indicators of peroxidation, such as vitamin E (V_E) and thiobarbituric acid-reactive substance (TBARS) contents, were changed as increasing dietary SO. It was shown that the inclusion of SO in the diets increased V_E concentrations, but reduced TBARS in the liver and total cholesterol (T-CHO) in the plasma. Linoleic acid (LA) and linolenic acid (LNA) significantly increased in fish liver fed diets that contained SO, but eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and the ratio n-3/n-6 were significantly reduced by the inclusion of dietary SO (P < 0.05). Our results indicated that the inclusion of SO increased the hepatic V_E content and reduced lipid peroxidation in fish. However, diet containing 100% SO as dietary lipid could reduce growth performance. Thus, we recommended that 40–80% SO can be used as dietary lipid to replace FO for juvenile Chinese sucker.     

Identification of oyster-derived hypotensive peptide acting as angiotensin-I-converting enzyme inhibitor

Angiotensin-I-converting enzyme (ACE) plays a crucial role in the crisis of hypertension. Some peptides that originate from protease hydrolysates are known to suppress ACE activity in vitro and in vivo. Here, we investigated whether trypsin hydrolysate of oyster Crassostrea gigas showed hypotensive activity and ACE inhibition. The hydrolysate significantly suppressed systolic blood pressure and ACE activity in spontaneously hypertensive rats following a one-shot oral administration and a long-term feeding experiment lasting 9 weeks. Each hydrolysate from oyster tissue showed ACE inhibitory activity, indicating the hypotensive effect was due to synergism. One potent ACE inhibitory peptide, Asp-Leu-Thr-Asp-Tyr, was identified from the hydrolysate of the striate muscle, and the peptide exhibited hypotensive activity in vivo. Protease digestion analysis suggested that Asp-Tyr could be the real effector of this penta-peptide in vivo.