Wild ostrich (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Struthio camelus</Emphasis>) ecology and physiology

This work discusses some of the important considerations of wild ostrich evolution, behaviour and ecology, as items included in ostrich production. In the process considerable research was conducted by collating information from peer-reviewed papers; textbooks; manuals; and PubMed and Agricola searches. Selected areas reviewed included activity of ostriches; feeding and water needs; sexual maturity; egg laying and natural incubation; selected physiological parameters; and predation. There is an immediate and urgent need to conserve and protect the rapidly declining populations of wild ostriches with the committed involvement of governments and funding bodies.     

Protection of mice against <Emphasis Type="Italic">Brucella abortus 544</Emphasis> challenge by vaccination with recombinant OMP28 adjuvanted with CpG oligonucleotides

Brucella abortus, a gram negative, facultative intracellular pathogen causes brucellosis in many animal species and humans. Although live, attenuated vaccines are available against this infection, they suffer from certain limitations. Therefore, the development of an effective subunit vaccine against brucellosis is an area of intense research. The outer membrane proteins (OMPs) of Brucella species have been extensively studied for its immunogenicity and protective ability. We have investigated the potential of CpG ODN to enhance the immunogenicity and protective efficacy of recombinant 28 kDa outer membrane protein (rOMP28) of Brucella melitensis. The study demonstrated vigorous immunoglobulin G (IgG) response of OMP28. The administration of rOMP28 with CpG caused increased cell mediated immune response in terms of induced IgG2a, T-cell proliferation and up-regulation of type I cytokine expression. In contrast, the free antigen suppressed the interferon gamma (type I cytokine) production on in-vitro stimulation of spleenocytes. The result indicates the role of OMP28 in the down regulation of IFN-γ production. Moreover, the B. abortus S-19 vaccinated mice showed highest production of IL-4 and IFN-γ. The protective ability of the antigen was evaluated by systemic bacterial clearance after challenging the mouse with B. abortus 544 pathogen. The level of protection was significant in rOMP28+CpG treated mice but was lower than the required level. The results of the present study indicate that rOMP28 could be an immunogen capable of inducing both humoral and cellular immune response. The humoral response was biased towards Th1 type when it was co-administered with CpG.     

Sero-epidemiological investigation of bovine toxoplasmosis in traditional and smallholder cattle production systems of Tanga Region,Tanzania

In view of the worldwide importance of Toxoplasma gondii and the fragmented information on the seroprevalence of the disease in animals in Tanzania, a study, using the modified Eiken latex agglutination test (LAT), was conducted from May 2003 to January 2004 to determine the prevalence of antibody to T. gondii in 130 randomly selected farms comprising 655 cattle. The overall seroprevalence of T.gondii antibodies in cattle and farms were 3.6% and 13%, respectively. Risk factors for animal and herd-level toxoplasmosis seropositivity were tested using multivariable logistic regression to control for confounding factors. Cattle managed under traditional husbandry practises were more likely to be seropositive than those managed under smallholder practises (48% versus 4.7%; p < 0.01). Herd size of ≥ 9 cattle were at greater risk of acquiring infection than herds holding fewer animals [≤ 9 cattle], (odd ratio [OR] = 3.99; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.97–16.48; P = 0.001). We concluded that seroprevalence at herd level was high and relatively low at animal level, possibly due to the reduced susceptibility of cattle to T.gondii infection as compared to goats and sheep. The high seroprevalence in animals managed by traditional husbandry practise suggests that the parasite is widely distributed in the environment and could pose a public health threat to the people living in those areas.     

Yield and mineral content of ten enset (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Ensete ventricosum</Emphasis>) varieties

A study was conducted to evaluate the macro and trace mineral contents of ten enset varieties collected from Sidama zone of southern Ethiopia. Samples of leaf lamina, leaf midrib, pseudostem and corm were taken from ten enset varieties at the age of 5 to 6 years during the main rainy season. The dry weight of each variety and fraction were also determined. Mineral contents in fractions of different enset varieties were analysed and compared with nutrient requirements of ruminants. The contribution of different enset fractions to the total dry weight was variable (P < 0.05), the highest being from pseudostem and the lowest from leaf lamina. There were varietal differences (P < 0.05) in macro and trace mineral content in different fractions except phosphorus (P) content of leaf lamina. Most enset fractions were rich sources of major minerals such as P, potassium (K), calcium (Ca) (except corm) and magnesium (Mg). Sodium (Na) content was very low. Most fractions were rich in iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn), but deficient in copper (Cu), except leaf lamina. Zinc (Zn) content was high in corm, but low in other fractions. This account of the macro and trace mineral content of different enset varieties and fractions could help in strategic supplementation intended to alleviate mineral deficiencies.     

Morphology and changes of chloride cell of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Rutilus rutilus Caspicus</Emphasis> (Cyprinidea,teleost) in Caspian sea

An ultrastructural study was performed on chloride cells of euryhaline R.r.Caspicus of south of Caspian Sea. The chloride cells are distributed in the interlamellar region of filaments. They are oval to elongated form with an apical positioned nucleus, expanded tubular system and heteromorphic mitochondria. These cells are surrounded by pavement cell and accessory cell. A small and depressed surface formed by pavement cells is in contact with the aquatic milieu. There is also channel system in accessory cells. One of the typical features was the important changes in microtubules and mitochondria of chloride cells in some fishes. Swelling and rupture of cristae and degeneration of microtubules were from these changes.     

Effect of supplementation of mustard oil cake on intake,digestibility and microbial protein synthesis of cattle in a straw-based diet in Bangladesh

The objective of this study was to analyse the effects of different levels of rumen-degradable protein (RDP) on intake, digestibility and microbial protein synthesis by supplementing mustard oil cake (MOC) on rice straw-based diet of cattle (Bos indicus) in Bangladesh. A 4 × 4 Latin square design was applied. Four diets having constant energy (7.0 MJ/kg of dry matter (DM)) with varying levels of RDP (M ₀ = 4.1 g/MJ (control), M ₁ = 6.3 g/MJ, M ₂ = 8.3 g/MJ and M ₃ = 12.4 g/MJ of metabolizable energy (ME)) were received by each animal for a period of 28 days. A metabolism trial was conducted for 7 days. Results indicate that with increasing levels of RDP, crude protein (CP) and RDP intake increased significantly (P < 0.01). The significant (P < 0.01) increase in digestibility values are obtained for DM, organic matter, CP and digestible organic matter in the rumen. The digestibility of neutral detergent fibre and acid detergent fibre was also increased significantly (P < 0.05). The total nitrogen (N), ammonia-N and total volatile fatty acids increase significantly (P < 0.01) while the rumen pH increased from M ₀ to M ₂ and decreased thereafter. The efficiency microbial N intake increased significantly (P < 0.01) but showed a curvilinear response with higher RDP level (12.40 g/RDP/MJ ME). This study concludes that supplementation of RDP from MOC enhances the intake, digestibility and microbial protein synthesis which ultimately increases utilization of low-quality feed resources that can be used for developing cost-effective feeding systems on a straw-based diet in tropical regions.     

Characterization of indigenous chicken production systems in Kenya

Indigenous chicken (IC) and their production systems were characterized to understand how the whole system operates for purposes of identifying threats and opportunities for holistic improvement. A survey involving 594 households was conducted in six counties with the highest population of IC in Kenya using structured questionnaires. Data on IC farmers’ management practices were collected and analysed and inbreeding levels calculated based on the effective population size. Indigenous chicken were ranked highest as a source of livestock income by households in medium- to high-potential agricultural areas, but trailed goats in arid and semi-arid areas. The production system practised was mainly low-input and small-scale free range, with mean flock size of 22.40 chickens per household. The mean effective population size was 16.02, translating to high levels of inbreeding (3.12%). Provision for food and cash income were the main reasons for raising IC, whilst high mortality due to diseases, poor nutrition, housing and marketing channels were the major constraints faced by farmers. Management strategies targeting improved healthcare, nutrition and housing require urgent mitigation measures, whilst rural access road network needs to be developed for ease of market accessibility. Sustainable genetic improvement programmes that account for farmers’ multiple objectives, market requirements and the production circumstances should be developed for a full realization of IC productivity.     

Prevalence and antimicrobial resistance profiles of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Salmonella enterica</Emphasis> serovars isolated from slaughtered cattle in Bahir Dar,Ethiopia

A study was undertaken from October 2006 to March 2007 to determine the prevalence and antimicrobial resistance patterns of Salmonella serovars. Liver, mesenteric lymph nodes, intestinal content, and carcass swab samples (each n?=?186) were collected from 186 apparently healthy slaughtered cattle at Bahir Dar abattoir. Bacteriological analysis was done according to the International Organization for Standardization (ISO 6579 2002). Isolates were serotyped at Agence Française de Securite Sanitaire des Aliments, Cedex, France. Twenty-eight isolates consisting of Salmonella Typhimurium, Salmonella Newport, Salmonella Haifa, Salmonella Heidelberg, Salmonella Infantis, and Salmonella Mishmarhaemek were identified. Salmonella Typhimurium and Salmonella Newport were most frequently isolated while Salmonella Heidelberg and Salmonella Mishmarhaemek were isolated least. Eleven of the 28 (39.3%) were resistant to one or more of the antimicrobials tested. Resistance was shown to ampicillin, chloramphenicol, gentamycin, norfloxacin, polymyxin-B, streptomycin, tetracycline, and trimethoprim. Four of 11 (36.4%) were multiple antimicrobial resistant. All the isolates tested were susceptible to the antimicrobial effects of gentamycin, norfloxacin, and trimethoprim. Eleven, four, and two isolates of the 28 were resistant to streptomycin, tetracycline, and ampicillin, respectively. All isolates of Salmonella Infantis, Salmonella Typhimurium (except one), and Salmonella Mishmarhaemek were susceptible to the tested antimicrobials. One Typhimurium isolate was resistant to chloramphenicol, streptomycin, and tetracycline. Salmonella Haifa was multiply antimicrobial resistant to ampicillin, tetracycline, and streptomycin. All isolates of Salmonella Heidelberg were resistant to streptomycin. Results of this study indicated high level of carcass contamination with antimicrobial-resistant Salmonella serovars which could pose public health risk; suggests need for hygienic slaughtering operations and proper cooking of meat before consumption. Further detailed studies involving different abattoirs, animal products, food items, and animals on different settings were recommended in the study area.     

Responses to graded replacement of urea by maize steep liquor in diets for intensively fed lambs for meat production

Urea is a common ingredient of the diets of intensively fed lambs, but is increasingly required for industrial processes. Maize steep liquor (MSL) is a by-product of maize grain degradation to produce starch that may be a suitable replacement. Fifty growing lambs were fed on equinitrogenous diets in which between 0% and 80% of the urea was replaced by MSL; their growth and metabolism were recorded over 70 days. Increasing replacement of urea by MSL increased feed intake and nutrient digestibilities, leading to increased growth rates, more efficient feed conversion, and increased nitrogen retention. Concentrations of triiodothyroxin, thyroxin, glucose, and methionine were increased by replacement of urea by liquor, and plasma urea was reduced. This study suggests that MSL is a suitable replacement for up to 80% of urea in the diet of rapidly growing lambs.     

Prevalence,molecular fingerprinting and drug resistance profile of enterovirulent <Emphasis Type="Italic">Escherichia coli</Emphasis> isolates from free-ranging yaks of Tawang district,Arunachal Pradesh,India

Of 273 samples (rectal swab) collected from free-ranging yaks of Tawang district, Arunachal Pradesh, 42 Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC), six enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) and 27 enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) strains were isolated. All the STEC and EPEC strains were further investigated for respective stx variants (for STEC only) and additional putative virulence factors. The 27 ETEC strains were also screened for characteristic enterotoxin gene(s) and colonization factors. Occurrence of ETEC was significantly (p < 0.05) higher in the diarrheic yaks and yaks of less than 1 year of age. Majority of enterovirulent E. coli isolates were resistant to amikacin, azithromycin, chloramphenicol, colistin, doxycycline, furazolidone, nalidixic acid, nitrofurantoin, streptomycin and tetracycline. Dendrogram, constructed with molecular fingerprinting profiles obtained from RAPD (Randomly Amplified Polymorphic DNA) and ERIC (Enterobacterial Repetitive Intergenic Consensus) PCR, placed the isolates in different clusters irrespective of their serotypes, virulence gene and drug resistance pattern. Collectively, the study indicates that yaks, being a potential reservoir of multidrug resistant STEC and EPEC, may represent significant risk to public health in this region. Higher recovery of ETEC isolates from yaks with diarrhea points out that ETEC may be a major determinant for repeated occurrence of diarrhea in yaks.