In‐field distribution of Plasmodiophora brassicae measured using quantitative real‐time PCR

A protocol using real‐time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for the direct detection and quantification of Plasmodiophora brassicae in soil samples was developed and used on naturally and artificially infested soil samples containing different concentrations of P. brassicae. Species‐specific primers and a TaqMan fluorogenic probe were designed to amplify a small region of P. brassicae ribosomal DNA. Total genomic DNA was extracted and purified from soil samples using commercial kits. The amount of pathogen DNA was quantified using a standard curve generated by including reactions containing different amounts of a plasmid carrying the P. brassicae target sequence. The PCR assay was optimized to give high amplification efficiency and three to four copies of the target DNA sequence were detected. Regression analysis showed that the standard curve was linear over at least six orders of magnitude (R² > 0·99) and that the amplification efficiency was >92%. The detection limit in soil samples corresponded to 500 resting spores g^?1 soil. The intersample reproducibility was similar to, or higher than, that of assays for other pathogens quantified in soil samples. Bait plants were used to validate the real‐time PCR assay. The protocol developed was used to investigate the spatial distribution of P. brassicae DNA in different fields and a significant difference was found between in‐field sampling points. The reproducibility of soil sampling was evaluated and showed no significant differences for samples with low levels of inoculum, whereas at higher levels differences occurred. Indicator kriging was used for mapping the probability of detecting P. brassicae within a 2‐ha area of a field. A threshold level of 5 fg plasmid DNA g^?1 soil, corresponding to approximately 3 × 10³P. brassicae resting spores g^?1 soil, is suggested for growing resistant cultivars. The results provide a robust and reliable technique for predicting the risk of disease development and for assessing the distribution of disease within fields.     

Simulated maternal pre‐spawning stress affects offspring's attributes in farmed Atlantic salmon Salmo salar (Linnaeus, 1758)

In fish hormones are released into the nutritive yolk sac during oogenesis in quantities that mirror female plasma levels, thus implying a potential for the maternal endocrine state at spawning to affect offspring characteristics. In the present study, mature female Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar, were given intraperitoneal cortisol implants to investigate potential impacts of simulated stress on offspring ontogeny. Maternal cortisol levels reduced fertilization success and affected several offspring characters: lowered initial survival rates, impaired growth early in life and increased prevalence of morphological abnormalities in adult individuals. In addition, offspring from cortisol administered females displayed increased locomotor activity in an acute confinement test. These results suggest that developmental trajectories of salmon offspring can be considerably altered if their mothers experience severe stress during the final stages of gametogenesis. The present findings may have conceptual and applied ramifications as they demonstrate a mechanism that links the maternal environment to subsequent viability of the progeny.     

The vertical distribution of fine roots of five tree species and maize in Morogoro,Tanzania

In order to assess the possibility of root competition in agroforestry, the vertical distribution of fine roots (< 2 mm in diameter) of five tree species in pure two-year-old stands was compared to that of mature maize.Cassia siamea, Eucalyptus tereticornis, Leucaena leucocephala andProsopis chilensis had a rooting pattern similar to that of maize, i.e. a slow decline in fine root mass from 0–100 cm soil depth.Eucalyptus camaldulensis had its roots evenly distributed down to 100 cm. On an average, the fine root biomass of the tree species was roughly twice as that of the maize. We conclude that the studied tree species are likely to compete with maize and other crops with a similar rooting pattern for nutrients and water.     

The effect of temperature on sensory quality,chemical composition and growth of carrots (Daucus carota L.). IL Constant diurnal temperatures under different seasonal light regimes

Summary

Carrots of cv. Panther F1 were grown in climate chambers at 9, 12, 15, 18 and 21°C, constant diurnal temperatures at three different periods of the year. The effect of varying solar radiation and temperatures were evaluated on growth, sensory attributes and chemical composition. Higher levels of light significantly increased most chemical and physical variables of the carrot roots. Temperature was the most important factor determining the variation in sensory and chemical variables, whereas for morphological features like root weight, root length and diameter measurements, light was more important than temperature. Principal component analysis (PCA) of chemical and physical variables explained 85% of the total variation by the first three principal components, the first component (PCI) being defined by physical variables, explained 46% of the variation, while the temperature related PC2 explained 32% of the variation. Prediction of sensory variables by chemical or physical variables by means of partial least square (PLS) was higher at low light intensity than at high light intensity.     

Influence of potassium supply and storage conditions on the discoloration of raw and cooked potato tubers of cv. Pimpernel

Summary Potato tubers of Pimpernel, grown at 18 levels of K or NPK supply, were assessed for enzymic browning and after-cooking discoloration after different treatments. The influence of potassium supply during the previous 30 years and in the year of growing on enzymic browning was pronounced. Enzymic browning of the tubers showed a strong negative correlation with concentration of potassium in tubers and haulm sampled at harvest. A significant, but less strong relationship between tuber colour and potassium in tubers and haulm was found for after-cooking discoloration. An increase in enzymic browing and after-cooking discoloration took place during the first 3 months of storage, but not during the next 3 months. Less enzymic browning occurred after 3 months of storage at 12°C than at 3°C. Storing at 0°C for 3 days in the fall had little affect on enzymic browning, whereas conditioning at 16°C slightly decreased enzymic browning.

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Zusammenfassung Aus zwei Langzeit-Feldversuchen wurden 1969 Kartoffelknollenmuster der Sorte Pimpernel gezogen. In diesem Versuch wurden 18 Stufen von K-oder NPK-Gaben verglichen (Tabellen 1 und 2). Die Verf?rbung von rohen und gekochten Knollen (Tabelle 3) wurde beurteilt, und in Knollen-und Krautmustern (Entnahme bei der Ernte) wurde der Kaligehalt bestimmt. Der Einfluss der Kaligabe w?hrend der vorhergehenden 30 Jahre und in Jahre 1969 auf die enzymatische Verf?rbung war deutlich (Abb. 1, Tabelle 4). Wo die Durchschnittsgaben von Kalium in früheren Jahren weniger als 70 kg/ha betrugen, trat eine betr?chtliche Verbesserung in der Farbe ein, wenn die Gabe im Anbaujahr von 100 auf 200 kg/ha erh?ht wurde (Abb. 2). Die Farbe der rohen Knollen war jedoch selbst bei einer Düngung mit 200 kg/ha unbefriedigend bei Parzellen, bei denen in früheren Jahren die Kaliversorgung im Boden auf einem tiefen Stand war. Die Verf?rbung nach dem Kochen war weniger ausgepr?gt und weniger beeinflusst durch die Kaligabe als die enzymatische Braunverf?rbung (Tabelle 4). Der Kaligehalt in % in Knollen und Kraut (Musterentnahme bei der Ernte) war in enger Beziehung zu der enzymatischen Braunverf?rbung, und es bestand eine signifikante, aber weniger enge Korrelation mit der Verf?rbung nach dem Kochen (Abb. 3 und 4). Die Braunverf?rbung der rohen Knollen und die Verf?rbung nach dem Kochen nahmen in den drei ersten Monaten der Lagerung zu, aber nicht w?hrend der drei folgenden Monate. Die Rohverf?rbung war nach einer dreimonatigen Lagerung bei 12°C schw?cher als bei 3°C. Setzte man Knollen für drei Tage im Herbst einer Temperatur von 0°C aus, so hatte dies wenig Einfluss auf die Rohverf?rbung (Tabelle 4). Konditionierung w?hrend 7 Tagen bei 16°C verbesserte die Farbe der rohen Knollen leicht (Tabelle 5). Die Ergebnisse umfassen vor allem die Stufen unter der optimalen Kaligabe. Ein Ueberschuss an Kali wurde wahrscheinlich nicht erreicht.

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Résumé On a prélevé, en 1969, des échantillons de tubercules de pomme de terre, variété Pimpernel, dans des essais en champ de longue durée, dans lesquels ont été comparés 18 doses de K ou de NPK (tableaux 1 et 2). On a établi la décoloration sur les tubercules crus et cuits (tableau 3), et on a déterminé le potassium dans les tubercules et les tiges échantillonnés à la récolte. L'influence de l'approt de potassium au cours des trente années antérieures et au cours de la dernière année (1969) sur le brunissement enzymatique est prononcée (fig. 1, tableau 4). Là où les doses moyennes de potassium au cours des années précédentes sont inférieures à 70 kg/ha, il appara?t une amélioration considérable dans la couleur lorsque l'apport de potasse, lors de la dernière végétation, atteint 100 à 200 kg/ha (fig. 2). Cependant la couleur des tubercules crus n'est pas satisfaisante, même apr⪻s une fumure de 200 kg/ha sur les parcelles où le potassium du sol a été maintenu à un niveau bas pendant les années précédentes. Après cuisson, l'altération de la couleur est moins grave et moins influencée par l'approt potassique que le brunissement enzymatique (tableau 4). Le pourcentage de potassium dans les tubercules et les tiges, échantillonnés à la récolte, montrent une relation étroite avec le brunissement enzymatique, et une corrélation significative moins étroite avec la décoloration aprés cuisson (fig. 3 et 4). Le brunissement enzymatique et la décoloration après cuisson augmentent au cours des trois premiers mois de conservation, mais non pas durant les trois derniers mois. Il appara?t moíns de brunissement enzymatique après trois mois de conservation à 12°C plut?t qu'à 3°C. Soumettre brusquement les tubercules à 0°C pendant trois jours a peu d'effet sur le brunissement enzymatique (tableau 4). Le fait de placer les tubercules pendant 7 jours à 16°C améliore légèrement la couleur des tubercules crus (tableau 5). Les résultats se rapportent le plus exactement aux niveaux situés en-dessous de l'apport optimum de potassium. On n'a probablement pas atteint l'excès de potassium.

     

Ergosterol Levels and Mould Colony Forming Units in Swedish Grains of Food and Feed Grade

Abstract

Although ergosterol is considered to be a suitable indicator of mould growth in cereal grains, there are few reference values available for Scandinavian conditions. We have determined the ergosterol levels in Swedish grain of different origins: cleaned food-grade wheat from a commercial mill, feed-grade cereals (oats and barley) with different odours and cereals (winter wheat, “American wheat”, triticale and rye) from various field trials conducted in south-central Sweden in 1990. Specific objectives were to elucidate the relationships between ergosterol levels and numbers of mould colony forming units (CFU) and between ergosterol and grain odour.

Ergosterol levels in the food-grade wheat ranged between 2.4 and 2.8 μg/g DW, and between 3.0 and 5.6 μg/g DW in the field trial cereals, while values in most of the feed grain samples ranged from 8–15 μg/g DW. The levels agree with other published data for European grains.

A positive correlation was found between numbers of colony-forming units and ergosterol concentration. The degree of correlation was higher when numbers of CFU were determined on dichloran-glycerol 18% agar with a low water activity (aw = 0.95) than on malt extract agar (aw = 0.99). There was no agreement between ergosterol levels and grain odour, since even samples described as having a fresh smell had high ergosterol levels. However, the highest level (33 μg/g DW) was found in a sample with a pronounced musty odour, and the lowest (1.1 μg/g DW) in a sample that smelled as if it had been heat damaged.     

Studies on calf diarrhoea in Mozambique: prevalence of bacterial pathogens

The prevalence of diarrhoea in calves was investigated in 8 dairy farms in Mozambique at 4 occasions during 2 consecutive years. A total of 1241 calves up to 6 months of age were reared in the farms, and 63 (5%) of them had signs of diarrhoea. Two farms had an overall higher prevalence (13% and 21%) of diarrhoea. Faecal samples were collected from all diarrhoeal calves (n = 63) and from 330 healthy calves and analysed for Salmonella species, Campylobacter jejuni and enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC). Salmonella spp. was isolated in only 2% of all calves. Campylobacter was isolated in 11% of all calves, irrespective of health condition, and was more frequent (25%) in one of the 2 diarrhoeal farms (p = 0.001). 80% of the isolates were identified as C. jejuni. No ETEC strains were detected among the 55 tested strains from diarrhoeal calves, but 22/55 (40%) strains from diarrhoeal calves and 14/88 (16%) strains from healthy calves carried the K99 adhesin (p = 0.001). 6,757 E. coli isolates were typed with a biochemical fingerprinting method (the PhenePlate) giving the same E. coli diversity in healthy and diarrhoeal calves. Thus it was concluded: i) the overall prevalence of diarrhoea was low, but 2 farms had a higher prevalence that could be due to an outbreak situation, ii) Salmonella did not seem to be associated with diarrhoea, iii) Campylobacter jejuni was common at one of the 2 diarrhoeal farms and iv) ETEC strains were not found, but K99 antigen was more prevalent in E. coli strains from diarrhoeal calves than from healthy, as well as more prevalent in one diarrhoeal farm.     

Possible risk factors on Queensland dairy farms for acaricide resistance in cattle tick (Boophilus microplus)

A case control study was carried out within a cross-sectional survey designed to investigate the management by Queensland dairy farmers of the cattle tick Boophilus microplus. Although 199 farmers were surveyed, data on acaricide resistance were only obtained from 66 farms. Multiple models were used to predict the probability of acaricide resistance associated with 30 putative risk factors. The region of the state in which the farm was located and the frequency of acaricide application were consistently associated with acaricide resistance. The risk of resistance to all synthetic pyrethroids (Parkhurst strain) was highest in Central Queensland and increased when more than five applications of acaricide were made in the previous year, when spray races were used and when buffalo fly treatments with a synthetic pyrethroid were applied frequently. The probability of resistance to amitraz (Ulam strain) was highest in Central Queensland, increased when more than five applications of acaricide were made in the previous year, and decreased on farms when a hand-spray apparatus was used to apply acaricides to cattle. The probability of resistance to flumethrin (Lamington strain) was highest in the Wide Bay-Burnett region.     

Network analysis of cattle and pig movements in Sweden: measures relevant for disease control and risk based surveillance

Registration of cattle and pig movements is mandatory in Sweden and all registered movements between farms in the years 2006-2008 were investigated using network analysis. The networks were analysed as monthly and yearly networks, separately per species and with the two species together. Measures that have been previously discussed in relation to outbreaks and disease control were calculated; moreover a measure of the ingoing infection chain was constructed. The ingoing infection chain captures ingoing contacts through other holdings, taking the temporal aspect and sequence of the movements into account. The distribution of the contacts among the holdings was skewed. Many farms had few or no contacts, while others had many, a pattern which has also been described from other countries. The cattle network and the combined network showed a recurring seasonal pattern, while this was not seen in the pig network. The in-degree was not equivalent to the ingoing infection chain; there were holdings with limited direct contacts, but a large number of indirect contacts. The ingoing infection chain could be a useful measure when setting up strategies for disease control and for risk based surveillance as it identifies holdings with many contacts through live animal movements and thus at potentially higher risk for introduction of contagious diseases.