Ecosystem services in Swedish forests

We identify, describe qualitatively, quantify biophysically and, if possible, monetarily valuate the most important ecosystem services in Swedish forests. Existing Swedish and Nordic research and statistics within this area are reviewed and used to develop a first framework for the valuation of ecosystem services in Swedish forests. We base our analysis on the CICES framework and the Cascade-model. Despite the rather long occurrence and use of the concept of ecosystem services, we do not yet have enough information on the status and economic value of services in Swedish forests. The value of the forest ecosystem services is at best an indication of the different multifunctional objectives that should be met in the management of the Swedish forests. The five most central ecosystem services in Swedish forests according to annual flow are timber and pulpwood, bioenergy, game, climate regulation and recreation and training, each estimated to have a monetary value of several billion SEK. The different ecosystem services in multipurpose forests interact with each other and may lead to conflicts between use and conservation. We identified a number of trade-offs and synergies between services focusing on the five above ecosystem services.     

燕山西部山区不同年龄落叶松人工林草本植物多样性

为了解华北落叶松人工林物种多样性随林分年龄的变化规律,对燕山北部地区不同年龄华北落叶松人工林的生物多样性进行调查和分析。研究结果表明：3种林龄的落叶松人工林在物种丰富度指数、Shannon-Wiener指数以及均匀度Pielou指数都以9 a生华北落叶松人工林为最高,其次为33 a生华北落叶松人工林,而18 a生华北落叶松人工林最低;林隙林隙地段物种多样性明显高于非林隙。随林分年龄的变化,华北落叶松人工林物种多样性没有表现出明显的规律性,与林分年龄相比,林分郁闭度以及林隙的数量对物种多样性的影响更大。     

Multifunctionality of mountain forests and economic evaluation

Mountain forests provide many functions, producing useful services to the man—in order to make decisions concerning their management it is necessary to evaluate them properly, taking into account expectations from individuals and society. To this purpose, different methods can be used, some of which are based on economic–monetary evaluations; by contrast, others allow choices to be made according to a set of priorities, using suitable indicators. Decisions concerning the management of forests may imply trade-offs between their different functions. They can also make some individuals better off and some worse off. Therefore, methods and techniques taking into account these different aspects are needed. Evaluating multifunctionality therefore represents a challenge involving manifold aspects, economical, technical, social and efficient methods should be chosen, which may be easily used.     

燕山北部山地人工针叶林及天然阔叶林植被层的降水截留量研究

为了比较人工针叶林及天然阔叶林对降水的调控作用,利用泡枝法对燕山北部山地落叶松人工林及天然次生杨桦林植被层对降水的截留量进行了比较。研究结果表明:在各个年龄阶段,落叶松乔木林冠截留量都高于天然次生杨桦林。落叶松人工林幼龄林、中龄林、近熟林乔木林冠截留量分别为0.44mm、0.74mm、0.69mm,杨桦林则分别为0.25mm、0.33mm、0.49mm;但落叶松人工林灌木的截留量低于天然次生杨桦林;华北落叶松人工林植被层总截留量高于天然次生杨桦林,分别是0.48mm、0.78mm、0.74mm。随着林龄的增加,杨桦林林冠截留量有逐渐增加的趋势,幼龄林、中龄林、近熟林分别为0.41 mm、0.38 mm、0.76mm;但落叶松林到达近熟林时林冠截留量却有所下降。     

First records of soilborne Phytophthora species in Swedish oak forests

Thirty‐two oak stands in southern Sweden, 27 with predominantly declining trees and five with a higher proportion of healthy trees were investigated regarding the presence of soilborne Phytophthora species. Phytophthora quercina, an oak‐specific fine root pathogen, was isolated from rhizosphere soil samples in 10 of the 27 declining stands. Additionally, P. cactorum and P. cambivora were recovered from one stand each. No Phytophthora species were isolated from the healthy oak stands. The soil conditions at the sites from which Phytophthora spp. were recovered ranged from mesic sediments to moraines, with clayey to silty textures and with soil pH (BaCl₂) between 3.5 and 5.0. The results show that P. quercina is geographically widespread in oak stands in southern Sweden and indicate that this pathogen may be one of the factors involved in oak decline in Northern Europe as has already been shown for western, Central and parts of southern Europe.     

芬兰多用途林业分析

发展多功能林业是林业可持续经营的新兴议题。林业在芬兰地位非常重要, 已成为国民经济的重要支柱。芬兰林业已进入多功能利用阶段, 在木材生产、户外休闲、草莓和蘑菇采摘、狩猎、驯鹿和自然保护等方面表现突出, 取得了显著的综合效益。     

Adapting a growth equation to model tree regeneration in mountain forests

Management and risk analysis of protection forests depend on a reliable estimation of regeneration processes and tree growth under different site conditions. While the growth of forest stands and thus the average growth of larger trees is well studied and published in yield tables as well as embodied in numerous simulation models, there is still a lack of information about the crucial initial stages of tree growth. Thus, we evaluated juvenile tree growth for different site conditions in the Swiss Alps and developed an approach to model both the early and later stages of growth based on the Bertalanffy equation. This equation is physiologically well founded and requires only two parameter estimates: a maximum tree height and a growth parameter. Data for the parameter estimation were available from studies of tree regeneration at a range of sites in Switzerland: growth patterns of larch (Larix decidua) were available from a high-elevation afforestation experiment. For spruce (Picea abies), data were obtained from a blowdown area in the Alps. The growth equation was fitted to the observed data and we found a good correlation of the fitted curves with the observed data. The parameter estimates were validated with independent data sets. The extrapolated growth curves, calculated with the estimated growth rates, correspond well to the validation data. Thus, it is possible to use the Bertalanffy equation to model both the early and later stages of growth. With this approach, we provide a basis for modelling the growth of juvenile and mature trees of different tree species in mountain forests of the European Alps.     

山火的克星森林的保护神——记阳春市民兵森林队伍建设

20 0 1年 12月 18～ 2 0日 ,广东省森林防火指挥部、省军区司令部在阳春市召开全省民兵森林消防队伍建设现场会 ,与会者观摩了阳春市民兵森林消防队伍精彩的实战扑火表演。省森林防火指挥部指挥长、省林业局局长邓惠珍在会上向省推介阳春的做法和经验。阳春市的民兵森林消防队伍为阳春的林业建设 ,维护林区的社会稳定 ,作出了重大的贡献 ,被广大干部群众誉为“山火的克星 ,森林的保护神”。1　认真贯彻省政府、省军区文件精神 ,选好配强森林消防队伍阳春市位于广东省西南部 ,下辖 18个镇 ,4个市属林场 ,337个村 (居 )委会 ,总人口 10 2 8万…     

Climate change and the probability of wind damage in two Swedish forests

We simulated how possible changes in wind and ground-frost climate and state of the forest due to changes in the future climate may affect the probability of exceeding critical wind speeds expected to cause wind damage within one northern and one southern study area in Sweden, respectively. The topography of the study areas was relatively gentle and the forests were dominated by Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.). Using estimated changes in the net primary production (NPP) due to climate change and assuming a relative change in the site productivity equal to a relative change in NPP, we simulated possible future states of the forest under gradual adjustment of the site index in response to climate change using the model The Forest Time Machine. Global climate change scenarios based on two emission scenarios and one general circulation model were downscaled to the regional level. The modified WINDA model was used to calculate the sensitivity of the forest to wind and the probability of wind damage for individual forest stands for the periods 2011–2041 and 2071–2100 and for a control period 1961–1990. This was done while taking into account effects on stability of the forest from expected changes in the occurrence of ground frost. Increasing sensitivity of the forest to wind was indicated for both study areas when adhering to recommended management rules of today. Adding also a changed wind climate further increased the probability of wind damage. Calculated probabilities of wind damage were generally higher in the southern study area than in the northern one and were explained by differences in wind climate and the state of the forests, for example with respect to tree species composition. The indicated increase in sensitivity of the forest to wind under the current management regime, and possibly increasing windiness, motivate further analysis of the effects of different management options on the probability of wind damage and what modifications of Swedish forest management are possibly warranted.     

浅议白云山生态风景林建设规划

白云山作为台州市城市的历史记忆，生态风景林是城市生态基础设施的重要组成部分；提出白云山生态风景林建设的思路，以人为本、结合自然环境、体现地方特色、生态优先原则，提高城市森林林分质量，推进生态风景林在城市中的发展。     

Structure and diversity of small mammal communities of mountain forests in Western Carpathians

We sampled the small mammal (SM) community in mountain forest ecosystems of the Beskydy Mountains over 5 years in order to study associations with different types of forest habitat. Fourteen species were determined, three being eudominant (yellow-necked mouse—Apodemus flavicollis (45 %), bank vole—Clethrionomys glareolus (23.3 %) and field vole—Microtus agrestis (15.7 %) and one dominant common shrew—Sorex araneus (9.3 %)). Highest abundance was observed in young succession sites (plantations) with dicotyledonous plants dominant (>50 %) in the undergrowth. Highest diversity was observed in plantations and primeval forests. Lowest total abundance and diversity were observed in mature monocultures. Significant differences in diversity were only found between old monocultures and other sites. Using a faunistic similarity index, two basic SM community groups were determined: those inhabiting (1) early (plantation) and late (reserve) successional forest ecosystems with a dense dicotyledonous plant herb layer, and (2) plantations with a dense grass herb layer and forests with a dense canopy closure (fruiting monoculture). Redundancy analysis confirmed separate habitat preferences of the three eudominant species. Generalised linear model indicated increasing preference of field vole for plantations with dominance of grass and <10–15 % admixed dicotyledonous plants while decreasing preference at ratios >10–15 %, and increasing preference of bank vole for plantations with a dicotyledonous plant ratio of >10–15 %. The biotopes monitored proved suitable for long-term survival of the dominant SM species. Early successional plantations and forest reserves also represent important refuges for a number of rarer SM species presently under threat.     

Dynamics and drivers of post-windthrow recovery in managed mixed mountain forests of Slovenia

Large and severe disturbances may erode the resilience of temperate forest ecosystems and alter their recovery dynamics, especially under global change. We investigated mid-term recovery in mixed mountain forests in Slovenia after three independent severe windstorms in 2008 created large disturbed patches. Across a network of 102 permanent plots and three inventories over the 11-year post-disturbance period, we monitored trends in density, composition, and structure of regeneration, which are key indicators of forest resilience. Ecological drivers of regeneration, including topography, microsites, and biotic interactions, were analysed using linear mixed models. We quantitatively assessed physiognomic recovery by comparing regeneration densities with the restocking target used in forest practice, and compositional recovery by comparison with pre-disturbance stand composition. Regeneration densities and structure tended to converge among post-disturbance treatments (planting vs. natural regeneration) 11 years post-disturbance, as density of natural regeneration substantially dropped between the second and third inventory. Some drivers of recovery (i.e. ground vegetation and distance to the forest edge) varied over time, while the effect of elevation on regeneration density was consistently negative. The results indicate that the forest sites generally show adequate resilience to large-scale wind disturbances, in terms of physiognomic recovery, but not in terms of rapid compositional recovery, as pioneer and light-demanding tree species increased in share compared to the pre-disturbance stands.

     

Browsing damage by moose in Swedish forests: assessments by hunters and foresters

Abstract

In Sweden, there is a longstanding conflict between the use of forests for timber production and game for hunting due to browsing damages on young forests. This study examines the assessments of two stakeholder groups regarding browsing damage by moose. The data originated from a mail survey that involved hunters and forest owners in Sweden. The samples were randomly selected from two national registers of hunters and forest owners, respectively. An ordered logit model was used to account for the assessments of severity of moose browsing damage. The results showed that on average, non-forest owning hunters rated the browsing damage on their main hunting ground lower than non-hunting forest owners rated the browsing damage on their forest estate. The respondents who both hunt and own forest had a rating that was intermediate between the former two groups. The ratings were mainly influenced by level of activity in improving game habitat, quantity of moose meat obtained, level of moose on forest estate and the importance of bagging game as well as forest estate size, hunting ground size, and the stakeholder group that the respondents belong. The findings can help in designing strategies for conflict resolution between forestry and hunting for moose.     

Recruitment limitation in forests: Lessons from an unprecedented mountain pine beetle epidemic

Since the mid-1990s the forests of central British Columbia have undergone an unprecedented Mountain Pine Beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins) (MPB) epidemic that has resulted in extensive mortality of canopy lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. latifolia Engelm.). This study investigated how seed-source availability, seedbed substrate, overstory structure, and time since MPB attack interact to affect post-MPB seedling recruitment of the dominant tree species of these forests. In addition to post-MPB recruitment, these forests may be regenerated by trees established in the understory prior to MPB disturbance. Accordingly, we examined abundance and patterns of all regeneration less than 130 cm tall. We found post-MPB recruitment was sparse. Subalpine fir (Abies laciocarpa (Hook.) Nutt.) comprised the majority of the post-MPB recruitment. It increased with local parent tree basal area and increased strongly with proximity to a major seed source. This resulted in a patchy distribution for subalpine fir post-MPB regeneration. Lodgepole pine post-MPB recruitment was limited by overstory shading. Recruitment of pine decreased as the total overstory basal area increased. Interior spruce (Picea glauca × engelmannii) post-MPB recruitment was similarly limited by total overstory basal area. Seedbed substrates were uniform and dominated by moss. Substrate type distribution did not change as time since MPB disturbance increased. The overall low post-MPB recruitment observed was likely due to a lack of disturbance to the moss-dominated forest floor. Moss is known to be a poor substrate in northern forests. The distribution of all regeneration less than 130 cm tall showed the same trends as the post-MPB regeneration. We believe the post-MPB seedling recruitment dynamics of these forests was not substantially changed from conditions prior to MPB disturbance. There was no pulse of regeneration up to 10 years post-MPB disturbance. Unless this changes, future stand structure will be dominated by the seedling bank established prior to the MPB epidemic. Subalpine fir dominated the seedling bank (68%) and post-MPB recruitment (94%). This suggests that MPB-disturbed forests are undergoing a substantial shift in landscape-level species composition.     

辽宁东部山区天然次生林涵养水源功能的初步研究

主要研究了辽宁东部山区天然次生林林冠截留降雨、林地土壤的渗透性能和贮水能力。结果表明，森林涵养水源的机制在于森林具有截留、蒸腾、增强土壤下渗能力，抑制地面蒸发等功能，对降水的吸收与流出起到很好的调节作用。林冠截留率为17．2％－17．5％。林区内土壤的有效涵水量为1518－1611t/hm^2。     

Nitrogen cycling following mountain pine beetle disturbance in lodgepole pine forests of Greater Yellowstone

Widespread bark beetle outbreaks are currently affecting multiple conifer forest types throughout western North America, yet many ecosystem-level consequences of this disturbance are poorly understood. We quantified the effect of mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) outbreak on nitrogen (N) cycling through litter, soil, and vegetation in lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. latifolia) forests of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (WY, USA) across a 0-30 year chronosequence of time-since-beetle disturbance. Recent (1-4 years) bark beetle disturbance increased total litter depth and N concentration in needle litter relative to undisturbed stands, and soils in recently disturbed stands were cooler with greater rates of net N mineralization and nitrification than undisturbed sites. Thirty years after beetle outbreak, needle litter N concentration remained elevated; however total litter N concentration, total litter mass, and soil N pools and fluxes were not different from undisturbed stands. Canopy N pool size declined 58% in recent outbreaks, and remained 48% lower than undisturbed in 30-year old outbreaks. Foliar N concentrations in unattacked lodgepole pine trees and an understory sedge were positively correlated with net N mineralization in soils across the chronosequence. Bark beetle disturbance altered N cycling through the litter, soil, and vegetation of lodgepole pine forests, but changes in soil N cycling were less severe than those observed following stand replacing fire. Several lines of evidence suggest the potential for N leaching is low following bark beetle disturbance in lodgepole pine.     

山地丘陵地区退耕还林经济效益探讨

为合理利用山区土地资源,加快推进山区退耕还林,增加农民收入,在平邑县进行退耕还林试验,结果表明:退耕还林成本高于种植农作物的成本;在果树结果前,退耕还林单位土地收益明显低于种植农作物的收益;果树进入结果期后,退耕还林收益逐渐增加;种植配置模式不同,收益不同,退耕还林经济收益高于种植农作物收益。     

Developing indicators for the sustainable management of mountain forests using a modelling approach

Methods to monitor the sustainability of forest management on local to regional scales are currently being developed in Europe, based on Pan-European criteria. However, current approaches to indicator development have several shortcomings. First, they fail to integrate the links among indicators. Second, they do not address the factors giving rise to specific indicator values explicitly. Third, they select indicators with an emphasis on data availability or ease of measurement rather than on informational content. To overcome these problems, we propose using a modelling approach to indicator development. What modelling and indicator development have in common is that they both try to capture the essence of real, complex systems. In this paper, we present an initial attempt to develop indicators for the sustainable management of mountain forests, using a modelling approach. Key issues that make the sustainable management of mountain forests a challenge, such as the poor ability of many stands to fulfil current human needs, are identified. A conceptual model depicting the most relevant system elements and links is described. In contrast to the Pan-European criteria and concept areas of sustainable forest management, which are result-oriented, the elements in the conceptual model are process-oriented. The approach could lead to a better understanding of the factors influencing the decision-making at the management unit level and to the identification of a set of meaningful indicators. To evaluate its full potential, however, a simulation model should be developed based on the conceptual model, and be applied to case studies.     

Long-term base cation mass balances for Swedish forests and the concept of sustainability

Data from the Swedish Forest Inventory was used to calculate mass balances for base cations Ca, Mg and K for Swedish forests. Using lysimeter and forest survey soil analyses to estimate present base cation leaching from the root zone reveals that weathering plus base cation deposition is not sufficient to support both, the present base cation leaching rate and the present rate of uptake caused by stem growth. Calculations suggest that 96% of the productive forested area may have higher rates of removal than supply for one or more base cation. Under a best-case scenario, assuming less pollution, the present growth rate and 100% efficiency in uptake of available nutrients, the area with more removal than supply would still be at least 30% of the total area. Forest soils are being depleted at a rate where the exchangeable reservoirs have high risk of being severely depleted in the next few decades in central and southern Sweden. During 1983–1985 the depletion rate is calculated to be, on the average, 0.33 keq ha⁻¹ year⁻¹. The weathering rate and present base cation deposition can sustain growth at a level where (80–85)×10⁶m³ stemwood year⁻¹ can be harvested. Any harvested growth beyond this volume must be sustained by artificial means.

For whole-tree harvesting without base cation return, the calculations indicate that it would significantly increase the base saturation depletion rate to an average of 0.62 keq ha⁻¹ year⁻¹, and risk depletion of the soil in less than one-to-two rotation periods almost anywhere in Sweden.

The calculations stress the importance that sustainable forest management must include the management of nutrient fluxes and reservoirs.