Slope correction for LAI estimation from gap fraction measurements

Digital hemispherical photography poses specific problems when deriving leaf area index (LAI) over sloping terrain. This study proposes a method to correct from the slope effect. It is based on simple geometrical considerations to account for the path length variation within the canopy for cameras pointing vertically. Simulations over sloping terrain show that gap fraction increases up-slope while decreasing down-slope. As a consequence of this balance between up- and down-slope effects, effective LAI estimates derived from inversion of the Poisson model are marginally affected for low to medium slopes (<25°) and LAI (LAI < 2). However, for larger slopes and LAI values, estimated LAI values may be strongly underestimated. The proposed correction was evaluated over four forested sites located over sloping terrain. Results indicate that in these conditions (LAI between 0.6 up to 3.0, clumped canopies with relatively erectophile leaf distribution), the effect of the slope (between 25° and 36°) was moderate as compared to other potential sources of problems when deriving LAI from gap fraction measurements, including clumping, leaf angle inclination and spatial sampling.     

Simulation of statistical characteristics of gap distribution in forest stands

An estimate of the required amount of LAI-2000 or digital hemispheric image measurements to ensure the desired accuracy of the leaf area index value derived from optical analyser measurements by inversion of gap fraction data is given. The estimate is based on a theoretical model of the second order statistics of gap occurrence in forest canopies. The main attention is paid to gap fractions averaged over the angular rings similar to the LAI-2000 instrument. Nilson's (1999) forest gap fraction model is first extended to simulate the bidirectional gap fraction and next the approximate equations for the standard deviation of gap fraction, correlation matrix of gap readings in different LAI-2000 angular rings, standard deviation of the LAI value as determined by the inversion of gap fraction data are derived. The results of simulation are compared with those obtained by LAI-2000 instrument and digital hemispheric photographs in three mature forests from Järvselja, Estonia. The comparison shows an acceptable agreement between the simulated and measured second order statistical characteristics. The distance from the observation height to the crowns and crown dimensions appear to be important in determining the magnitude of variance. When the LAI-2000 instrument is used together with a view-cap, the angular size of the view-cap has an effect on the second order statistics and on the value of apparent clumping index. A computer program has been written to calculate the second-order gap statistics.     

Comparison of methods for measuring gap size distribution and canopy nonrandomness at Järvselja RAMI (RAdiation transfer Model Intercomparison) test sites

Methods for analyzing foliage nonrandomness by means of the TRAC instrument, digital hemispheric photography, and a gap fraction model are assessed at two RAMI (RAdiation transfer Model Intercomparison) mature stands in Järvselja, Estonia. The six different methods involve calculation of the canopy element clumping index, at scales coarser than that of a shoot. The major aim was to define the merits and limitations of the various methods. We conclude the gap size distribution and beyond-shoot clumping is very stable across the stands for the solar zenith angle range from 30° to 60°. Estimates based on the gap size distribution and the combination of gap size and logarithm methods performed the best while compared with an independent gap fraction model. We clarify the effect of the assumed leaf inclination angle distribution on gap size distribution and differences between estimates of beyond-shoot clumping. We show that the modified, gap-size distribution based method of Chen and Cihlar can provide reliable beyond-shoot clumping estimates without any a priori assumptions about the total gap fraction, segment length or the leaf inclination angle distribution. We also illustrate the changes in element clumping with measurement height. The compiled data extend the original parameter dataset to be used in the next phase of RAMI for different benchmark tests and reflectance modeling experiments, and contribute toward systematic validation efforts of radiative transfer models, operational algorithms, and field instruments, as promoted by the Committee on Earth Observation Satellites (CEOS).     

不同叶面积指数遥感产品在呼伦贝尔草甸草原的应用对比

叶面积指数(leaf area index,LAI)是植被生理过程模拟的重要参数之一,对植被气候关系、全球气候变化研究等具有重要的意义。近年来LAI产品越来越多,这些产品的精度、区域适用性都不相同。为了选择适用于呼伦贝尔典型草甸草原的LAI产品,为以后在呼伦贝尔展开工作提供便利,该文以内蒙古呼伦贝尔草甸草原为研究区域,利用2013年6-8月6期地面试验数据,以HJ-1A/B CCD高分辨率影像为中间桥梁建立植被指数SR与LAI的统计模型,反演得到LAI参考图像,对研究区域内与地面试验同期的MODIS LAI和GLASS LAI、GEOV1 LAI产品分别进行了直接验证与交叉验证。结果显示,3个LAI产品均存在高估现象,以GLASS LAI最为显著约高估41%,其次是MODIS LAI约高估了32%。GEOV1 LAI产品准确性最高,RMSE=0.289 MAE=0.216。GLASS LAI与GEOV1 LAI产品的相关性最好(R2=0.6465)。通过对比全年LAI产品发现,3个产品具有良好的时序一致性。GLASS LAI呈现为平滑曲线,高估现象主要存在于LAI值较小时。MODIS LAI最不稳定性,波动性较大。GEOV1 LAI产品在第133天至第201天这段时间内LAI值比其他两个产品的LAI值小;在第202天后GEOV1 LAI值与GLASS LAI值相差无几,高于MODIS LAI。根据对比分析结果,GEOV1 LAI产品最适用于呼伦贝尔典型草甸草原。通过提取质量控制层数据,确定云覆盖不是影响LAI异常的原因。     

基于高光谱图像的茶树LAI与氮含量反演

为了对茶树进行实时、快速、无损的叶面积指数LAI和氮含量检测,该文以英红九号茶树为试验对象,利用便携式高光谱成像仪采集光谱数据、人工破坏性采摘叶片进行叶面积指数的计算以及传统化学方法测量叶片氮含量,比较不同高光谱特征变换形式与LAI和氮含量之间的相关性,并选择其中相关系数较高的高光谱特征变量作为自变量,分别采用线性、指数、对数和抛物线表达式建立LAI和氮含量的回归模型。结果显示:在多种高光谱数据变量建立的模型中,以绿峰反射率R_g为自变量的对数拟合模型最佳,其拟合样本的决定系数R~2和验证样本的均方根误差RMSE值分别为0.9和0.087 6。以植被指数变量VI_4(红边面积/黄边面积)与氮含量建立的指数模型为最佳建模效果,拟合样本的决定系数R~2和验证样本的均方根误差RMSE值分别为0.830 3和0.102 9,研究结果可为茶树叶面积指数LAI和营养成分的无损检测提供参考。     

基于光谱信息的柑橘树叶面积指数测试系统研制

叶面积指数可为精细农业生产提供作物生物量状态信息,通过光谱的分析,找出叶面积指数和光谱的关系,从而通过光谱反演出叶面积指数及叶干质量,可实现叶面积指数的快捷准确测量。该文以柑橘叶片为研究对象,通过扫描标定试验,得到叶片的精确总面积以及标定的LAI值。利用以FieldSpec-FR地物谱仪和计算机为主体的数据采集平台和以计算机和ViewSpecPro、SPSS等软件为核心的反演平台组成的测试系统,对柑橘叶光谱信息进行采集与分析。结果表明,LAI与光谱信息RVI的拟合方程相关系数R=0.891,显著水平Sig＜0.05,应用回归方程计算的结果相对误差为0.04%;LAI与叶干质量的拟合方程相关系数R=0.885,显著水平Sig＜0.05,应用回归方程计算的结果相对误差为0.30%,叶干质量与叶湿质量的拟合方程相关系数R=0.990,显著水平Sig＜0.05,应用回归方程计算的结果相对误差为2.27%。该系统可为果树LAI进行实时快速自动检测提供研究基础。     

基于多光谱与高光谱遥感数据的冬小麦叶面积指数反演比较

近年来,高光谱遥感数据广泛应用于农作物叶面积指数(LAI)反演。与常用的多光谱遥感数据相比,高光谱数据能否提高农作物LAI反演的精度和稳定性还存在争议。针对这一问题,该研究利用实测冬小麦冠层高光谱反射率数据,构造了不同光谱分辨率和波段组合的5种光谱数据。基于ACRM(a two-layer canopy reflectance model)模型、2套参数化方案及上述5种光谱数据,对冬小麦LAI进行反演,分析光谱分辨率、高光谱数据波段选择、模型参数不确定性3方面因素对LAI反演精度与稳定性的影响。研究结果表明:当波段选择适宜、模型参数不确定性较小且光谱数据分辨率较高时,LAI反演精度与稳定性更高,提高光谱分辨率对LAI反演精度的改进作用随光谱分辨率的升高而降低;反之,当高光谱数据波段选择不当或者模型参数不确定性较大时,提高光谱数据的分辨率并未提高LAI反演精度。该研究解释了"高光谱遥感数据能否提高植被参数反演精度"问题,为进一步发挥高光谱数据在农作物LAI反演中的潜力提供了科学参考。     

基于作物模型与叶面积指数遥感影像同化的区域单产估测研究

通过对作物光合、呼吸、蒸腾、营养等一系列生理生化过程的定量模拟,作物生长模型已经被成功应用于田间尺度的作物单产研究。为了进一步将作物模型扩展应用于区域尺度,提高区域作物单产的模拟精度,该文探讨了将作物模型与多时相叶面积指数(LAI)遥感影像同化以改善区域单产估测的方法。研究首先通过地理信息系统将美国农业部开发的“考虑气候的作物环境决策模型”——EPIC模型,扩展为空间模型。然后,通过基于Landsat TM影像差值植被指数DVI与田间观测叶面积指数构建的最优回归模型,反演了研究区域的多时相叶面积指数影像。最后通过优化算法实现了空间EPIC模型与影像信息的同化,并将系统应用于河北石家庄地区2004年冬小麦的单产估测。结果表明,通过数据同化校正部分关键参数后的空间作物模型的单产模拟精度得到有效提高,但要达到业务运行精度仍有待进一步改善。     

基于热点植被指数的冬小麦叶面积指数估算

针对传统植被指数方法中利用单一方向的光谱特性估测LAI容易出现饱和现象和冠层结构信息不足的缺陷,以二向反射特性的归一化植被指数(NHVI)为基础,将表征叶片空间分布模式的热暗点指数(HDS)引入土壤调整型植被指数(SAVI),增强型植被指数(EVI)中,构建具有二向反射特性的土壤调整型热点植被指数(SAHVI)和增强型热点植被指数(EHVI)。同时使用红光,近红外,蓝光和绿光波段计算HDS,选择对LAI敏感性较高的HDS参与构建新型植被指数,并利用试验测量的小麦冠层二向反射率数据和叶面积指数,研究新型植被指数与LAI的线性关系。结果表明:基于蓝光和红光波段计算的HDS参与构建的EHVI、SAHVI与LAI的线性相关程度要优于EVI、SAVI,且较NHVI有进一步提高,能有效缓解LAI估算中植被指数饱和现象。     

基于虚拟仪器的果树重叠叶片LAI实时检测系统

目前叶面积指数(leaf area index,LAI)检测中重叠叶片的辨别是一个难点。该文提出一种创新的重叠叶片LAI简易检测方法:在室内直射平行光源照射下,通过光电传感器检测叶片透射光能量,传感器信号经过调理,由数据采集卡采集至计算机,利用LabVIEW软件平台进行程序设计,自动判断重叠叶片层数。将叶片层数乘以传感器的接收面积即为该检测位置各层叶片面积,将整个检测过程中的叶片面积累加即为各层叶片的总面积,进而求出LAI。根据试验结果选用近红外作为光源,设计并制作用于检测的近红外光电传感器,其短路电流I1、I2分别与前置放大输出电压U1、主放大输出电压U2均有良好的线性关系,于0.05水平显著。数据采集试验结果表明,在手动进行扫描、定位采集的方式下,以方格法计算的LAI值作为准确值,系统对LAI的计算最大相对误差绝对值为14.8%。初步探讨了叶片间隔对透射辐射量的影响,结果发现乘幂模型的拟合效果较好。     

基于主成分分析的叶面积指数尺度效应

为描述多空间尺度观测数据在表达同一区域农作物叶面积指数(LAI)分布特征时存在的差异,该文提出了一种基于主成分分析(PCA)的LAI尺度效应分析方法。该方法充分考虑了多尺度数据的相关性与差异性,从统计分析角度出发,采用PCA进行数据挖掘和信息重组,引入动态多元线性回归模式基于主成分信息(PCs)反演估算LAI,进而定量描述尺度效应。选取大麦和玉米为试验对象,先以地面最细空间尺度观测数据为基准,通过尺度上推构建一系列不同空间尺度数据;再依据上述尺度效应分析方法进行有效信息提取和LAI估算,并纳入有效主成分个数(NEPCs)、决定系数(R2)和平均相对精度(MRA)等参数定量描述尺度效应。理论分析和数值实践证实了该方法在农作物LAI尺度效应定量分析中的可行性和有效性。     

基于HJ-CCD与TM影像的水稻LAI估测一致性分析

针对传感器参数与Landsat-5 TM较为相近的环境减灾小卫星HJ-CCD影像可否适用于水稻叶面积指数（LAI）估测的问题,该文利用同为2009-07-13获取的安徽省境内相同范围的HJ-CCD影像和TM影像,结合地面同步调查数据,分别从影像原始波段相关性、反演模型精度及LAI空间分布趋势3个方面,对两类数据在水稻LAI估测上的一致性进行分析和评价。结果表明,两类影像原始波段反射率相关性较高,基于两类影像的单变量、多变量模型在精度上一致性较高,估测所得的LAI在空间分布上也具有较高的一致性,数据集中分布的区间较为一致。因此,该研究初步证明将HJ-CCD影像用于水稻LAI估测在总体上是可行的。但同时,由于基于两类影像构建的模型在形式上存在一定程度的差异,据此得到的LAI填图结果的数据分布在某些区间内亦略有差异。因此,在应用中应注意针对不同数据源进行独立建模分析,不可相互套用模型。该研究一定程度上为有着重访周期短、覆盖范围宽等优势的国产中分辨率遥感数据在农业领域的应用提供依据。     

不同生育期水稻叶面积指数的高光谱遥感估算模型

2011年和2012年通过大田试验,利用便携式野外光谱仪实测水稻冠层不同生育时期的高光谱数据,同时使用SUNSCAN冠层分析系统采集水稻冠层叶面积指数（LAI）;采用光谱微分技术和统计分析技术,分别分析高光谱反射率及其植被指数与LAI之间的关系,建立LAI估算模型并进行模拟结果对比。结果表明：水稻抽穗-成熟期,利用光谱值的对数形式对LAI值的模拟效果较好,分蘖-抽穗期利用光谱反射率模拟LAI变化过程的效果不理想。 在利用各种植被指数估算LAI方法中,水稻分蘖-抽穗期以修改型土壤调整植被指数MSAVI[758,805]对LAI的估算效果最好,模拟值与实测值的相关系数通过了0.01水平的显著性检验（R=0.7754）,估算精度较高。在抽穗-成熟期,也以修改型土壤调整植被指数MSAVI[758,817]对LAI的模拟效果最好,模拟值与实测值的相关系数通过了0.01水平的显著性检验（R=0.6488）,估算精度较高。说明修改型土壤调整植被指数（MSAVI）能更好地模拟水稻不同生育期的叶面积指数,按照分蘖-抽穗期、抽穗-成熟期两个生育阶段分别建立水稻冠层LAI的高光谱估算模型能够提高LAI估算的准确度,研究结果也证实了分生育阶段建模的必要性。     

基于高光谱遥感的不同品种花生冠层叶面积指数的通用估算模型

为了快速、无损地监测花生冠层LAI,获取其长势信息,于2014年通过大田试验选用5个品种花生作为供试品种,使用ASD FieldSpec HandHeld便携式野外光谱仪采集花生不同生育时期的冠层高光谱数据,同时使用SUNSCAN冠层分析系统实测花生冠层叶面积指数（LAI）,并应用光谱微分技术和统计分析技术,分别分析4种光谱形式和6种植被指数与LAI的相关关系,建立估算模型。结果表明：高光谱反射率及其光谱变换形式中最优波段与LAI的相关性均极显著,其中一阶微分光谱ρ'在793nm波段处构建的估测方程对花生冠层LAI的估算效果最好（r=-0.5391,P＜0.01,RE=0.2497）,其模拟值与实测值的拟合度达极显著水平（R=0.4435,P＜0.01）;一阶微分光谱ρ'在734nm波段处LAI的实测值与模拟值的拟合效果最好（R=0.5485,P＜0.01）。6种植被指数所选的最优组合波段与LAI均通过了0.01水平的显著性检验 （r≥0.5731,P＜0.01）,其中归一化植被指数NDVI[760,976]对花生冠层LAI的估算效果最好（r=-0.6421,P＜0.01,RE=0.2167）,模拟值与实测值的拟合度达极显著水平（R=0.6731,P＜0.01）,且优于ρ'对LAI的估算效果;LAI实测值与模拟值拟合效果最好的为DVI[760,976] （R=0.6893,P＜0.01）。研究结果表明一阶导数光谱和植被指数对花生冠层LAI的估算精度均较高,植被指数的估算精度尤高,研究同时进一步证实了导数光谱和植被指数能较好地消除土壤、大气等环境背景信息的影响。     

高温胁迫下水稻红边特征及SPAD和LAI的监测

为了促进高光谱遥感技术在水稻长势监测及其灾害评估中的作用,该文以扬稻6号与南粳43为试验对象,通过高温胁迫试验,测定孕穗期高温胁迫后2个品种在不同生育期冠层高光谱反射率、红边参数和叶片绿色度（SPAD）值及叶面积指数（LAI）。结果表明,2个水稻品种剑叶的SPAD值与LAI随生育期的进行呈先上升后下降的趋势,在开花期均达到最大值,在始穗期与蜡熟期时较低。随着高温胁迫的加剧,SPAD值和LAI不断减小。冠层光谱红边位置、红边幅值与红边面积在开花前呈“红移”,开花后呈“蓝移”现象。随着胁迫温度的提高,3个红边参数也呈现“蓝移”现象。不同生育期剑叶SPAD值和LAI与红边特征参数均具有显著或极显著的相关关系。相对于红边幅值,以红边位置为参数所建的模型能更好地预测水稻剑叶的SPAD值和LAI。     

基于最大熵模型的玉米冠层LAI升尺度方法

叶面积指数(leaf area index,LAI)是表达农作物冠层结构的关键参数之一,准确获取LAI对于农作物长势监测、估产等研究具有非常重要的意义。由于地物空间复杂性、数据源的不同以及遥感反演模型的非线性,LAI的反演结果会存在尺度效应,因此需要进行尺度转换研究。理想的升尺度转换应该只是数据空间分辨率的降低,而数据内在信息应保存到低分辨率中。最大熵(maximum entropy,Max Ent)模型是基于多种环境因子的广义学习模型,对分析因子的空间分布具有较高的估算精度,因此,该研究利用最大熵模型进行玉米冠层LAI升尺度方法研究,从而将野外实测的LAI点数据扩展到空间分辨率为30 m的面数据,所使用的数据源是Landsat8 OLI遥感影像、气象数据和野外样点上测量的LAI数据。研究结果表明:利用最大熵模型升尺度转换结果与实测LAI相比,R2为0.601、RMSE为0.898,说明两者的相关性较高;由于玉米冠层叶片之间的相互遮挡,导致整体结果偏低,但偏低误差在可接受范围内。因此,Max Ent模型可用于农作物LAI点数据到面数据的升尺度转换。     

Potential performances of remotely sensed LAI assimilation in WOFOST model based on an OSS Experiment

An Observing System Simulation Experiment (OSSE) has been defined to assess the potentialities of assimilating winter wheat leaf area index (LAI) estimations derived from remote sensing into the crop growth model WOFOST. Two assimilation strategies are considered: one based on Ensemble Kalman Filter (EnKF) and the second on recalibration/re-initialisation of uncertain model parameters and initial state conditions. The main objective of the OSS Experiment is to estimate the requisites for the remotely sensed LAI, in terms of accuracy and sampling frequency, to reach target of either 25 or 50% reduction of errors on the final estimation of grain yields.Our results demonstrate that EnKF is not suitable for assimilating LAI in WOFOST as the average error on final grain yields estimation globally increases. These poor results can be explained by the possible differences of phenological development existing between assimilated and modelled LAI values (difference called “phenological shift” in our study) which is not corrected by the EnKF-based assimilation strategy.On the contrary, a recalibration-based assimilation approach globally improves the estimation of final grain yields in a significant way. On average, such improvement can reach up to approximately 65% when observations are available all along the growing season. Improvements on the order of 20% can be already be attained early in the season, which is of great interest in a crop yield forecasting perspective. If the first objective (25%) of error reduction on final grain yields can be reached in a quite high number of assimilated LAI observations availabilities and uncertainty levels, the field of possibilities is significantly restricted for the second objective (50%) and implies to have LAI observations available all along the growing season, at least on a weekly basis and with an uncertainty level equal or ideally lower than 10%. These requirements are not currently met from neither a technological nor an operational point of view but the results presented here can provide guidelines for future missions dedicated to crop growth monitoring.     

Leaf area index measurements at Fluxnet-Canada forest sites

Leaf area index (LAI) measurements made at 17 forest sites of the Fluxnet Canada Research Network are reported here. In addition to LAI, we also report other major structural parameters including the effective LAI, element clumping index, needle-to-shoot area ratio, and woody-to-total area ratio. Values of the fraction of photosynthetically active radiation (FPAR) absorbed by green leaves in these stands at noon of 15 August are also provided, and a procedure is suggested for using the effective LAI for estimating FPAR at various times of the day and year. Labour-intensive laboratory measurements of the needle-to-shoot area ratio were made for five conifer sites. For each site, 45 shoot samples were measured at three heights from three trees. LAI-2000, TRAC and digital hemispherical photography (DHP) were used in the field, and good agreements between these techniques were obtained. In particular, the low cost DHP technique agreed within 21% of LAI-2000 in terms of effective LAI measurements and 12% of TRAC in terms of element clumping index measurements, suggesting a possibility of using DHP alone for indirect LAI measurements. However, LAI-2000 and TRAC are still found to be more reliable than DHP because of some remaining technical issues with DHP. We confirm the correct method for determining the photographic exposure proposed in previous studies and suggest optimum zenith angle ranges in photograph processing to estimate the effective LAI and the clumping index.     

基于LAI时间序列重构数据的冬小麦物候监测

农作物物候信息对农作物长势监测和估产具有重要意义。该文以河北省中南部冬小麦为研究对象,以叶面积指数(LAI,leaf area index)为同化量,采用重采样粒子滤波算法同化WOFOST(world food studies)作物生长模型和遥感观测LAI,重构LAI时间序列数据,基于重构数据提取冬小麦返青期、抽穗期和成熟期等关键物候期。重构结果表明,重构的LAI具有良好的时间连续性和空间连续性,可减缓WOFOST作物模型LAI变化剧烈程度,峰值出现时间与遥感LAI曲线基本同步,且可一定程度上解决遥感观测LAI数值整体偏低和数据缺失的问题。物候期监测结果表明,在空间分布上与冬小麦实际生长状况基本相符,时间上也较为合理,但因在返青期存在LAI高初始值、成熟期存在LAI下限不确定性等问题致使在具体日期存在偏差。