Eurasian blackbird predated by wild Rhinopithecus roxellana in the Qinling Mountains,China

Although there are some reports that have described primates eating animals, it is unknown whether predation on vertebrates exists in herbivorous leaf‐eating primates. We have witnessed firsthand wild Sichuan snub‐nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana) preying on and consuming Eurasian blackbirds (Turdus meruld) in the Qinling Mountains of China. This event suggests that R. roxellana, which has previously been described as a herbivorous leaf‐eating primate, may be partially carnivorous and the correct classification of this species would be omnivorous. Furthermore, food‐share behavior among higher‐ranked members occurs in a one‐male unit when vertebrate prey is hunted by this species.     

A newly‐found pattern of social relationships among adults within one‐male units of golden snub‐nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxenalla) in the Qinling Mountains,China

Group living provides various advantages to individuals in regards to protection avoidance, intergroup competition, productive success and social information. Stable one‐male units (OMUs) consist of relationships between the adult females and the resident male as well as the relationships among adult females. Based on continuous observation of a reproductive group of golden snub‐nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana) in the Qinling Mountains, we analyzed the relationships among adult individual dyads within 4 OMUs. The results indicated that in golden snub‐nosed monkey societies, females not only had no strong tendency to build a relationship with the resident male in the OMU but also had no strong tendency to build relationships with other females in the OMU. In comparison with hamadryas (Papio hamadryas) and gelada baboons (Theropithecus gelada), the relationships within golden snub‐nosed monkeys OMUs showed neither the star‐shaped pattern observed in hamadryas baboons nor the net‐shaped pattern observed in gelada baboons. We concluded that the relationships within golden snub‐nosed monkey OMUs indicated a third pattern in nonhuman primate societies. Future research is required to determine the potential mechanisms for such a pattern.     

Sex‐specific participation in inter‐group conflicts within a multilevel society: the first evidence at the individual level

Inter‐group conflicts are common among many group‐living animals and involve potentially complex motivations and interactions. Mammals living in multilevel societies offer a good opportunity to study inter‐group conflicts. This study is the first to explore the function of sex‐specific participation during inter‐group conflicts within a multilevel society at the individual level. The Sichuan snub‐nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana) is an endangered seasonal breeding species living in a multilevel society. From Sep 2007 to May 2008 we recorded 290 inter‐group conflicts of a free‐ranging provisioned band of R. roxellana in the Qinling Mountains of China to investigate the function of individual aggression during inter‐group encounters. Our findings show that adult males were the main participants in inter‐group conflicts, while females took part in them only occasionally. The male participation rate during the mating season, when adult females were estrous, was significantly higher than that during the non‐mating season. Furthermore, males directed their aggression to other males, and directed more intense aggression towards bachelor males than towards other resident males. For both sexes, the participation rate as initiators was higher in the winter than that in the spring; and there was a significant positive correlation between group size and the participation rate as initiators. Our results suggest that inter‐group aggression in Sichuan snub‐nosed monkeys is linked to both mate defense and resource defense.     

Comparison of gastrointestinal parasite communities in vervet monkeys

Globally, habitat degradation is accelerating, especially in the tropics. Changes to interface habitats can increase environmental overlap among nonhuman primates, people, and domestic animals and change stress levels in wildlife, leading to changes in their risk of parasite infections. However, the direction and consequences of these changes are unclear, since animals may benefit by exploiting human resources (e.g., improving nutritional health by eating nutritious crops) and decreasing susceptibility to infection, or interactions with humans may lead to chronic stress and increased susceptibility to infection. Vervet monkeys are an excellent model to understand parasitic disease transmission because of their tolerance to anthropogenic disturbance. Here we quantify the gastrointestinal parasites of a group of vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus aethiops) near Lake Nabugabo, Uganda, that frequently overlaps with people in their use of a highly modified environment. We compare the parasites found in this population to seven other sites where vervet monkey gastrointestinal parasites have been identified. The vervets of Lake Nabugabo have the greatest richness of parasites documented to date. We discuss how this may reflect differences in sampling intensity or differences in the types of habitat where vervet parasites have been sampled.     

天山北坡东段与西段不同海拔鸭茅群落特征及物种多样性研究

从对种质资源的研究角度出发,选取天山北坡东段与西段海拔1800~2200 m鸭茅（Dactylis glomerata）分布的典型区域,分析不同海拔鸭茅群落的物种组成及物种多样性变化。结果表明：群落高度、密度、盖度及地上生物量方面,天山北坡东段与西段在各海拔之间都存在差异,但无明显的规律性变化。鸭茅种群随海拔的升高,其优势地位逐渐降低;α多样性指数表明,垂直方向上,西段和东段山地均呈现随海拔先升高后降低再升高的趋势,呈现“V”型,水平方向上,两段山地相同海拔处除丰富度Margalef指数和物种丰富度在海拔2000 m呈现出显著性差异外（P<0.05）,其他指数均未呈现出显著性的差异。β多样性指数表明,东段海拔1800~2200 m之间,群落相似性极高,共有种较多,生境条件较为一致。西段海拔1800~2200 m之间,共有种较少,生境存在着较大的差别。物种多样性指数与海拔呈现出显著负相关,与群落地上生物量不相关。     

Spotted hyaena visitation at anthropogenic sites in the Kruger National Park,South Africa

Many large carnivores are attracted to anthropogenic sites, typically, because they offer easy access to anthropogenic resources, such as garbage. Such behaviour could lead to increased contacts between people and carnivores, with the potential for escalated conflicts. Within protected areas, carnivores experience limited risks of visiting anthropogenic sites. However, conflict could still arise, so that it is important to evaluate the drivers for visitation within protected areas. We tested how age, sex and social rank influenced seasonal visitation rates by spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta) at two sites with elevated human activity and infrastructure within the Kruger National Park, South Africa. Social rank did not influence visitation rates, and differences among age classes did not correspond to differences in abilities to procure native food. Instead, juveniles had higher visitation rates than older individuals, but only during the wet season. Visitation rates were not consistently higher during the dry season, nor was there more pronounced differences between age classes in the dry season. Our results suggest the anthropogenic sites were visited as part of exploratory behaviour coupled with occasional rewards. Our study also showed a large individual variation in tendencies towards visiting anthropogenic sites, but only for younger animals. We call for additional studies quantifying individual variation in tendencies to visit anthropogenic sites, and argue that deterrents and limitations in rewards of visiting anthropogenic sites might be efficient in preventing human-hyaena conflict within the Kruger National Park.     

Resting metabolic rates increase with elevation in a mountain‐dwelling lizard

Individuals that inhabit broad elevational ranges may experience unique environmental challenges. Because temperature decreases with increased elevation, the ectotherms living at high elevations have to manage limited activity time and high thermoregulatory effort. The resting metabolic rate (RMR) of a postabsorptive animal is related to its total energy requirements as well as many other fitness traits. Mesquite lizards (Sceloporus grammicus) living on La Malinche Volcano, Mexico, inhabit a wide elevational range with some populations apparently thriving above the tree line. We measured the RMR of lizards from different elevations (i.e., 2,600, 3,200, and 4,100 m) at four ecologically relevant temperatures (i.e., 15, 25, 30, and 35 °C) and found that RMR of mesquite lizards increased with temperature and body mass. More importantly, lizards from the high‐elevation population had mass specific RMR that was higher at all temperatures. While the higher RMRs of high‐elevation populations imply higher metabolic costs at a given temperature these lizards were also smaller. Both of these traits may allow these high elevation populations to thrive in the face of the thermal challenges imposed by their environment.     

甘肃省天然草地植物种质资源潜势分析与保护利用

甘肃省地处青藏高原、黄土高原、蒙新高原和西秦岭山地的文汇地带，有亚热带、温带、寒温带气候和草丛、草原、草甸、荒漠等草地类型，天然草地面积大，植物种类组成复杂、数量繁多、种质资源丰富。综合分析甘肃天然草地植物种质资源的利用现状和潜在优势，针对种质资源保护利用仍处于初级阶段这一现实，提出了进一步开发天然草地种质资源和保护利用的措施，以达到维护草地生态平衡和种质资源持续保护利用的目的。     

Endozoochorous seed dispersal by golden snub-nosed monkeys in a temperate forest

Seed dispersal is essential for plant recruitment and the maintenance of biodiversity. Colobine monkeys are primarily folivorous, but they also consume fruits and are often assumed to be seed predators. Although they are known to be epizoochorous seed dispersers, their role as endozoochorous seed dispersers needs reassessment. We examined potential endozoochory in golden snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana) at Dalongtan in Shennongjia National Park, central China, by assessing potential germination of ingested seeds (n = 1806, 9 species) from fecal samples. Intact seeds were in almost all fecal samples (ranging from 5–130 seeds), and ingested seeds were from small seeded species (seed width <4.5 mm). The 2 most abundant species were Actinidia arguta (73%) and Rosa caudata (15%). The fruits of A. arguta were unripe when ingested (i.e. effective seed predation) and the ingested seeds did not germinate in the trials. Therefore, ingestion of unripe seeds does not lead to effective seed dispersal. However, germination rates of defecated R. caudata (9%) were greater than control seeds (6% and 0%), demonstrating potential endozoochorous seed dispersal. Thus, colobine monkeys do indeed disperse mainly small-seeded from multi-seeded fruits through potential endozoochory and this process enhances the recruitment of seedlings.     

甘肃省主要优良牧草种质资源野外调查

对甘肃省境内主要类型草场的主要野生牧草种质资源分布和现状进行了调查。调查范围涉及河西走廊、祁连山区、甘南高原、黄土高原和陇南西秦岭山区等不同地貌类型的温带阔叶林、温带针叶林、温带典型草原、温带草甸草原、高寒草甸、高寒灌丛、盐化草甸、沼泽化草甸、温带灌丛、温带荒漠等植被型。对不同植被的38个样点植物群落的主要成分进行了记载分析,了解了以豆科、禾本科为主的各植物种的分布现状。在调查的过程中共涉及植物157种,分属14科50属,其中草甸种有90余种,草原种有50余种,荒漠种有10余种;禾本科植物59种,豆科植物19种。调查采集了以豆科和禾本科为主的55个可作为牧草利用的植物种的96份种质材料,并采集了106份植物标本。作为种质材料,保存了可作为牧草利用的植物种子146份1 050 g。     

Effects of insect infestation on rodent‐mediated dispersal of Quercus aliena: results from field and enclosure experiments

Rodents influence plant establishment and regeneration by functioning as both seed predators and dispersers. However, these rodent–plant interactions can vary significantly due to various environmental conditions and the activity of other insect seed predators. Here, we use a combination of both field and enclosure (i.e. individual cage and semi‐natural enclosure) experiments, to determine whether rodents can distinguish sound seeds from those infested with insects. We also demonstrate how such responses to insects are influenced by food abundance and other environmental factors. We presented rodents with 2 kinds of Quercus aliena seeds (sound and insect‐infested seeds) in a subtropical forest in the Qinling Mountains, central China, from September to November of 2011 to 2013. The results showed that rodents preferred to hoard and eat sound seeds than infested seeds in the field and semi‐natural enclosure, while they preferred to eat infested seeds over sound seeds in the individual cages. In addition, both hoarding and eating decisions were influenced by food abundance. Rodents hoarded more sound seeds in years of high food abundance while they consumed more acorns in years of food shortage. Compared with field results, rodents reduced scatter‐hoarding behavior in semi‐natural enclosures and ate more insect‐infested seeds in smaller individual cages. These results further confirm that rodents distinguish infested seeds from non‐infested seeds but demonstrate that this behavior varies with conditions (i.e. environment and food abundance). We suggest that such interactions will influence the dispersal and natural regeneration of seeds as well as predation rates on insect larvae.     

Factors affecting the breeding success of the African Black Oystercatcher (Haematopus moquini): a perspective on protection and food availability

Breeding success (fledglings pair^?1 y^?1) of the Red-listed African Black Oystercatcher (Haematopus moquini) is highly variable, both spatially and temporally. Despite a diversity of natural factors causing this variability, there is evidence that two anthropogenic factors, i.e. disturbance and an introduced mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis), are having an impact on the local breeding success of this species. Using a data set comprising 87 site-years of nest-monitoring data across most of the species’ breeding range, we analysed the extent and causes of variability in breeding success. Breeding success differed across three population categories defined by varying levels of human disturbance: island populations, protected mainland populations, and unprotected mainland populations. Differences in breeding success between island populations and protected mainland populations were likely due to differing exposure to predators; however, differences between protected and unprotected mainland populations were unlikely caused by this as both experience equivalent predation levels (although from different predators). Protection only improved the breeding success of oystercatchers in very high-quality habitats (with a high biomass of alien mussels), and where populations were ‘released’ from high levels of human disturbance. In unprotected mainland areas, human activity impacted on the breeding success of local populations primarily through predation of small chicks by uncontrolled dogs, and by rising tides drowning chicks that were hiding from human disturbance. The findings of this study note the potential conservation dilemma resulting from an invasive species improving the conservation status of a Red-listed species, and encourage the implementation of restricted sites in high-quality habitats with high breeding pair densities.     

高寒草甸湿润与干旱化生境中植物多样性的海拔分布格局

受全球变化和外界干扰的影响,青藏高原高寒草甸生境趋向干旱化。生境变化对物种多样性的海拔分布格局有何影响?本研究以藏东南东达山作为研究地点,沿海拔梯度设置9个样地,在每个样地设置10个1m×1m样方,5个位于湿润生境,5个位于干旱生境,调查样方内的物种组成。将样方中频度≤7的物种确定为偶见种,反之为常见种,分析所有种、偶见种和常见种α、β和γ多样性沿海拔梯度的分布格局。以Cody指数(βC)、倍性分配法(βW)和物种组成相似性随海拔距离的衰减速率(βslope)3种方法测度β多样性。样地中共记录种子植物160种,其中湿润生境132种,干旱生境107种。湿润生境中,所有种和偶见种的α和γ多样性随海拔的增加而下降,而干旱生境中呈现为增加趋势;常见种α和γ多样性在两种生境中均随海拔的增加而略增加。3种β多样性指数的分布格局不一致,湿润生境中βC和βW多样性高于干旱生境,偶见种βC和βW多样性高于常见种。高寒草甸湿润与干旱生境物种多样性的海拔分布格局不同,偶见种多样性高,直接影响物种多样性的海拔分布格局。     

Analysis of fecal nutrients and particle size in captive proboscis monkeys (Nasalis larvatus) fed seasonal dietary foliage at a Japanese zoo

One male and three female captive proboscis monkeys (Nasalis larvatus) were used as test animals to compare fecal nutrients after being fed seasonal foliage. Foliage and fecal samples were collected during three seasons (spring, summer, and winter). We analyzed crude ash (CA), ether extract (EE), crude protein (CP), neutral detergent fiber (NDF), acid detergent fiber (ADF), and acid detergent lignin (ADL). In addition to the above components, for the fecal samples, we examined total fecal nitrogen (TFN), nitrogen in fecal NDF (NDF-N), metabolic fecal nitrogen (MFN), and particle size distribution (MPS). Seasonal differences in foliage components were observed, with NDF and ADF being lowest in spring (p < 0.05). Fecal NDF and ADF also tended to be lowest in spring. Further, the distribution of fecal particle size indicated that MPS tended to increase in winter. The mean fecal NDF content (47.4%) for all three seasons measured in this study was as much as 1.3 times lower than previously reported values in free-ranging specimens. These data provide useful information that can be used to find some suitable food items for the endangered highly folivorous monkeys in captivity.     

内蒙古贺兰山啮齿动物种类组成及海拔梯度分布研究

贺兰山独特的地势地貌和植被垂直分布特点,为啮齿类动物的群落结构和分布特征研究提供了良好条件。在2013年分春、夏、秋3个季节,采用铗日法对内蒙古贺兰山的啮齿动物种类组成和海拔梯度分布情况进行了细致研究。调查选取了8条典型沟道,共布设有效铗日18 748个,捕获啮齿动物235只,隶属2目5科11属13种。捕获种类最多的为哈拉乌沟(11种),最少的是雪岭子沟和甘树湾沟,各捕获2种。啮齿动物多样性垂直分布特点总体上呈现中间高两头低的趋势,符合"驼峰形"格局。     

Altered Herbivore Distribution Associated With Focal Disturbance

Natural disturbances historically created structurally diverse patterns across the landscape, and large herbivores concentrated herbivory in areas where disturbance decreased standing senesced biomass that acted as a grazing deterrent through decreased palatability and overall forage quality. However, following European settlement, many natural large-scale disturbance regimes that influence vegetation and herbivore grazing selection were altered or removed and replaced with fine-scale anthropogenic disturbances. It is unclear how fine-scale focal disturbance and alteration of vegetation structure influences livestock distribution and grazing. Therefore we used a tracked vehicle as a disturbance agent in a mesic mixed-grass prairie to assess the influence of focal anthropogenic disturbance on livestock distribution and grazing. Track vehicle disturbance decreased the height of vegetation (P < 0.05) but did not alter plant species composition (P > 0.05). Cattle fecal pat density was greater (P ≤ 0.05) in locations with track vehicle disturbance. Little bluestem tiller height was shorter (P ≤ 0.05) in tracked locations than nontracked locations in grazed treatments, but was not different in nongrazed locations the first growing season following disturbance. Fecal pat density and tiller height were not different (P > 0.05) between tracked and nontracked locations following the second growing season. Therefore, we concluded that fine-scale focal anthropogenic disturbance alters herbivore distribution and defoliation and can maintain structural heterogeneity, but the effect is ephemeral and does not create long-lasting grazing lawns.     

东祁连山杜鹃灌丛草地物种多样性特征及干扰因子

在海拔3080~3610 m范围内,研究东祁连山杜鹃灌丛在不同海拔高度的物种多样性特征及砍伐、滑坡干扰对其影响。结果表明:Shannon-Wiener指数随海拔高度先升后降,最高值出现在3330 m处,为2.537,最低值则出现于海拔最高的3610m处,为2.109,两个峰值相差0.428,下降幅度为16.9%;丰富度指数与之相似,以3330m最高,为3.672,在3610m处最低,为2.2,峰值相差1.472,下降幅度为40.1%;均匀度的变化规律有所不同,最高值出现在海拔3400m处,为0.793,最低值则出现于较低的3160m处,为0.725,两个峰值相差0.068,仅下降8.6%,变幅很小;总体来看,在3230~3400m之间,群落的物种多样性、丰富度和均匀度均较高;较高和较低海拔地段,物种多样性较低,丰富度和均匀度相应偏低;群落在自然应力的作用下发生滑坡后,其Shannon-Wiener指数、丰富度和均匀度均有较大程度下降,比对照分别下降46.9%、34.2%和38.0%,差异极显著;砍伐的情形则与滑坡大不相同,群落被砍伐两年内,其Shannon-Wiener指数、丰富度和均匀度均无显著差异。     

完达山东部林区冬季东北兔的生境选择

2006～2008年的冬季,在黑龙江省完达山东部林区,利用布设样线的方法对东北兔生境选择进行了研究。通过生境选择指数分析表明,东北兔主要选择中坡位、阳坡、坡度小于25度、离人为干扰距离大于1000m的针阔混交林和灌丛生境;主成分分析表明,隐蔽条件、食物、温度和人为干扰是影响东北兔生境选择的主要生境因子。     

东祁连山高寒草地植物群落二维极点排序

利用极点排序对东祁连山高寒草地植物群落进行了分析,并通过Simpson生态优势度指标对植物群落优势度进行了测定。结果表明,(1)在不同的海拔区域内,影响植物群落分布的主要环境因子不同。根据影响植物群落分布的环境因子的变化情况,可将研究地区划分为3个地段,即较低海拔地段(2710~2930m),水分条件对植物群落的分布影响较为明显;中海拔地段(2930~2960m),植物群落的分布主要受水,热组合状况的影响;而在较高海拔地段(2960~3080m),温度条件成为限制植物群落分布的主要因素。(2)群落生态优势度与群落内植物种群数呈负相关,海拔梯度通过影响群落内的种群组成而影响群落生态优势度。不同种群生态优势度的差异则反映了群落对放牧干扰的生态响应,随退化程度的加大,种群组成由抗性弱的物种向抗性强的物种逐渐过渡。     

祁连山北坡植物群落空间分布格局与多样性研究

干旱区山地植物群落的空间分布格局和多样性特征对海拔梯度的响应分析,有助于探究山地植物的生态适应性策略。采用TWINSPAN和DCA排序等方法,研究了祁连山北坡植物群落分布格局和多样性特征。结果表明：祁连山北坡植物群落可以分为9个类群,随着海拔的升高,植被类型由荒漠-荒漠草原-典型草原逐渐转变为草甸草原,植物群落由斑块状分布的盐爪爪+珍珠群丛至灌木亚菊+珍珠群丛和合头草+珍珠群丛过渡为甘蒙锦鸡儿+芨芨草群丛、扁穗冰草+西北针茅群丛和西北针茅+赖草群丛,最后逐渐演化为呈镶嵌分布的鬼箭锦鸡儿+高山柳群丛和苔草+嵩草群丛;草地群落的Shannon-Wiener多样性指数（H'）和物种丰富度指数（R）呈“双峰”变化趋势,Pielou均匀度指数（J）在中海拔有最大值,而Simpson优势度指数（C）在中海拔有最小值。祁连山植被类型由低海拔荒漠至高海拔草甸草原演化过程中伴随着植物群落分布格局和种类组成的改变,体现了山地环境对植物群落构建的过滤作用。