Evolution of soil and water conservation in rain-fed areas of China

Rain-fed (dryland) farming is an ancient agricultural production system in China. It occurs widely across almost the whole country, especially in the Northwest and North China. The semi-arid Loess Plateau is the most important region of rain-fed farming in China, but unfortunately, soil erosion on the Loess Plateau area is the highest in China, and indeed amongst the highest in the world. This highlights the necessity for developing practices that can reduce soil and water erosion, improve soil water use efficiency, improve crop productivity, and reduce rural poverty in the region. Many techniques of soil and water conservation are being used in rain-fed areas of China, including such systems as mulch, ridge and furrow systems. The Appendix describes a unique system of soil and water conservation, called Shatian.Modern research on conservation tillage (No Till), although essential for reducing erosion, increasing crop productivity, and ameliorating poverty, is just beginning in China. Modern conservation tillage research started in the1990s' with support from Australia and other countries. The procedures, however, were modified to be in accord with local conditions and prevailing farmer experiences. With 10 years of experimentation, results show that the most successful conservation practice on the Western Loess Plateau is no till with stubble retention. This technique helps to conserve soil water, increases soil organic carbon, improves soil structure and water infiltration, reduces soil and water erosion, and improves crop productivity and sustainability of rain-fed farming systems. However, its adoption rate remains low due to barriers such as traditional attitude, insufficient rural extension, and so forth.     

Potential effect of conservation tillage on sustainable land use: A review of global long-term studies

Although understood differently in different parts of the world, conservation tillage usually includes leaving crop residues on the soil surface to reduce tillage. Through a global review of long-term conservation tillage research, this paper discusses the long-term effect of conservation tillage on sustainable land use, nutrient availability and crop yield response. Research has shown several potential benefits associated with conservation tillage, such as potential carbon sequestration, nutrient availability, and yield response. This research would provide a better perspective of the role of soil conservation tillage and hold promise in promoting application of practical technologies for dryland farming systems in China.     

Is conservation tillage suitable for organic farming? A review

Conservation tillage covers a range of tillage practices, mostly non‐inversion, which aim to conserve soil moisture and reduce soil erosion by leaving more than one‐third of the soil surface covered by crop residues. Organic farmers are encouraged to adopt conservation tillage to preserve soil quality and fertility and to prevent soil degradation – mainly erosion and compaction. The potential advantages of conservation tillage in organic farming are reduced erosion, greater macroporosity in the soil surface due to larger number of earthworms, more microbial activity and carbon storage, less run‐off and leaching of nutrients, reduced fuel use and faster tillage. The disadvantages of conservation tillage in organic farming are greater pressure from grass weeds, less suitable than ploughing for poorly drained, unstable soils or high rainfall areas, restricted N availability and restricted crop choice. The success of conservation tillage in organic farming hinges on the choice of crop rotation to ensure weed and disease control and nitrogen availability. Rotation of tillage depth according to crop type, in conjunction with compaction control measures is also required. A high standard of management is required, tailored to local soil and site conditions. Innovative approaches for the application of conservation tillage, such as perennial mulches, mechanical control of cover crops, rotational tillage and controlled traffic, require further practical assessment.     

化害为利:黄土高原淤地坝旱作农业系统探析

淤地坝属于黄土高原重要的水土保持工程措施,兼具淤地造田之效。以淤地坝为载体,坝地作物种植为核心的淤地坝旱作农业系统是黄土高原独特的农业系统和农业景观。通过文献梳理和实地调研,对黄土高原淤地坝旱作农业系统进行了系统分析。研究表明:(1)黄土高原淤地坝的人工修筑史可以追溯至明代万历年间,距今至少已有400余年的历史,1950年代以后得到普遍推广;(2)淤地坝传统的修筑技术和坝地旱作农业耕作技术体系,体现出人与自然和谐共处的生存准则和先民智慧的生活理念;(3)淤地坝旱作农业系统具有显著的经济价值、生态价值、文化价值、景观价值、社会价值与科研价值等农业文化遗产价值,在黄土高原生态文明建设、农业可持续发展和农耕文化传承等方面具有重要意义。     

SOIL EROSION,CONSERVATION, AND ECO‐ENVIRONMENT CHANGES IN THE LOESS PLATEAU OF CHINA

As one of the best‐known areas in the world, the Loess Plateau, has long been suffering from serious soil erosion. The present paper reviewed the historical variation of climate, vegetation cover, and environment changes in order to understand the causes of severe soil erosion. Documentary evidence indicated that climate changes and vegetation cover were the dominant natural factors influencing the soil erosion rates during the Holocene. Intensive human activities consisting of warfare, population growth, deforestation, and soil and water conservation measures were responsible for the changes of soil erosion during the anthropogenic period. Spatial and temporal changes of specific sediment yields presented significant decrease within the last several decades, which resulted from decreasing rainfall, large scale soil and water conservation measures, agricultural irrigation, and reservoir construction. Different phase of soil conservation measures demonstrated the development of policies and techniques on soil erosion control. Effective strategies of soil and water conservation, consisting of terracing, afforestation, natural rehabilitation, and check‐dams construction, were carried out on the Loess Plateau during the past six decades. The progress of soil conservation measures confirmed that the check‐dams systems might be suitable for Loess hilly Plateau, and natural vegetation rehabilitation is the best way for soil erosion control and should be implemented in other regions with emphasis of improving the quality of conservation measures based on natural rehabilitation. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

中国农田生产系统土壤保持功能及其经济价值

农田生产系统不仅为人类提供了多种多样的农产品,同时,农作物对地表的覆盖以及各种水土保持措施的采用,使农田生产系统也发挥着重要的土壤保持功能。根据计算,我国农田生产系统每年保持土壤的数量为101.9×108t,其中,西南地区、黄土高原区和东北地区的农田土壤保持功能最为突出。采用市场价格法、机会成本法和影子工程法对农田保持土壤的价值进行评估,结果表明:我国农田每年保持土壤养分的价值为4408.50×108元/a,减少耕地废弃价值为164.09×108元/a,减轻淤积的价值为53.74×108元/a,总计4626.66×108元/a,相当于2000~2002年我国种植业平均产值的32.08%。其中,东北地区、黄土高原区和西南地区保持土壤价值较大,合计为2851.8×108元,占总价值的61.6%。     

吴旗县水土保持生态建设调查报告

吴旗县确立“封山退耕、植树种草、舍饲养羊、林牧主导、强农富民”的开发思路 ,将全县 10 3万hm2 坡耕地全部退耕 ,只保留 2万hm2 耕地发展高效农业 ,农村经济呈现出蓬勃发展的势头。该县在全国率先实施了“封山禁牧、舍饲养羊” ,走出了西部开发的新路子 ,是黄土高原水土保持生态建设的创举。建议总结推广其典型经验 ,加大黄土高原水土保持生态建设力度等     

黄土高原丘陵沟壑区土壤物理性质对苜蓿 种植年限的响应

西部黄土高原丘陵沟壑区是中国乃至世界上水土流失最严重的区域,以禾谷类作物单播为主的传统农业生产系统和过度耕作是引致水土流失的最主要原因。紫花苜蓿作为优良豆科牧草,在区域生态环境建设和产业结构调整中发挥着重要作用。因此,本研究通过设置在陇中黄土高原半干旱区的长期定位试验,以苜蓿草地(3 a、10 a、12 a)和农田(马铃薯地)为主要研究对象,探讨了土壤物理性质对于苜蓿种植年限的响应,为黄土高原雨养农业系统紫花苜蓿适宜种植年限的选择及苜蓿草地的可持续利用提供科学依据。结果表明,随着紫花苜蓿种植年限的加长,土壤表层呈容重降低、孔隙度增加的变化趋势,而下部土层变化不明显。苜蓿种植可以提高耕层0~30 cm土壤0.25 mm水稳性团聚体含量、平均重量直径(MWD)和几何平均直径(GMD),同时降低团聚体破坏率(PAD),且随种植年限的延长效果愈加明显。苜蓿种植一定年限后土壤总有机碳(TOC)和易氧化有机碳(ROOC)与农田差异明显,其中种植苜蓿土壤易氧化有机碳占总有机碳的比例为44%~57%,农田土壤易氧化有机碳比例占52%~68%,表明种植苜蓿不仅提高了土壤总有机碳含量,且改变了土壤有机碳的组成比例。与农田相比,苜蓿种植可改善土壤水分入渗性能,表现为随种植年限的延长呈现先增加后降低的趋势。黄土高原沟壑区种植苜蓿可以改善土壤有机质形态和物理结构,提高土壤渗透能力,但苜蓿种植年限以10 a为宜,10 a之后应该进行轮作换茬以维持雨养农业系统的可持续发展。     

黄土高塬沟壑区水土流失综合治理范式

 黄土高原是中华农耕文化的发祥地,其主要地貌类型区之一的黄土高塬沟壑区,其农业发展有着比黄土高原其他地区优越的自然条件。但长期以来,由于自然和人为因素的双重作用,该区水土流失十分严重,塬面径流下沟导致沟头不断前进,塬面逐年萎缩。由于沟坡坡度大而导致重力侵蚀异常活跃,侵蚀强度逐渐加强。在特殊的自然环境、人口压力以及经济发展需求的条件下,探索黄土高塬沟壑区水土流失综合治理范式成为水土保持领域科技人员和当地政府急需解决的问题之一。在解析黄土高塬沟壑区自然地理特征、水土流失特点以及社会经济发展需求的基础上,通过对该区现有的水土流失综合治理模式进行梳理,结合范式的概念,提出黄土高塬沟壑区水土流失综合治理范式。     

我国西北干旱地区耕作高效综合利用技术分析

我国西北干旱地区是西部地区的重要组成部分,在国家实施西部大开发的进程中,如何保证农民的吃饭问题,已成为人们关心的头等大事。在目前解决吃饭问题仍然要依靠农业生产,农业是世界上最原始、最古老和最根本的产业,随着人口的不断增长和自然环境的不断枯竭恶化,农业可持续发展已成为当今世界各国在其农业和农村经济发展乃至整个国民经济发展过程中的核心内容。在西北干旱地区实施有效的耕作技术,对改变坡面微地貌、减少土壤侵蚀、增加土壤抗性、蓄水、保土性能、培肥地力和提高作物产量均有显著作用。在上述背景下,分析了地膜覆盖、节水灌溉、保护性耕作和间套四种效果较好的耕作高效综合利用技术,可供决策部门在制订农业发展计划时参考。     

The Transformation of Agriculture in Brazil Through Development and Adoption of Zero Tillage Conservation Agriculture

The soil conservation movement in Brazil has been a major driving force in the continuing search for agricultural farming systems that are more sustainable than what we have today, particularly in tropical and subtropical areas. The development and adoption of Zero Tillage Conservation Agriculture (ZT/CA) was the key to the success of this movement, generating agricultural, environmental, and societal benefits.Adoption of the ZT/CA philosophy and technologies is currently practiced on more than 50% of the annual crop area. This is due to the work and innovations of pioneering farmers, agronomists, researchers, and consultants that were and are involved in these efforts. This extensive adoption of ZT/CA occurred after many unsuccessful efforts to mitigate against the devastating effects of soil erosion that were threatening the entire agricultural industry in Brazil. Technicians and farmers realized that erosion control required continual cover of the soil to guard against the torrential rain storms common to these regions. This triggered the efforts of soil conservation pioneers at different points in time and regions of Brazil.In southern Brazil, Herbert Bartz, watched his topsoil eroding away in torrents of runoff. This set him thinking and searching for alternatives, resulting in his adoption of ZT/CA farming in 1972. Ten years later in Brazil's centre-western savannah (Cerrado biome), farmers, researchers, crop consultants and agro-industry initiated efforts to expand cultivation into the very difficult production region of the Cerrados. This was successfully achieved through the pioneering work of agronomist John Landers, bringing experience from the ZT/CA farmer association networks in the south.These were the turning points in the sustainable development of annual crop farming in Brazil. Today, society recognizes the role of these pioneers as key to achieving social, economic and environmental sustainability. ZT/CA reversed the historically accelerating degradation of soil organic matter and soil structure by abandoning conventional tillage, thus improving soil physical and chemical characteristics. This was achieved by promoting cover cropping and permanent soil cover with crop residues, crop rotations, and complementary, environmentally suitable soil management technologies.     

黄土高原地区耕作技术效益研究

黄土高原地区地形破碎,坡地所占比例大,水土流失严重。调查和试验表明,在坡耕地上,因地制宜地采取各种水土保持耕作技术措施,对改变坡面微地貌,减少水土流失,增加土壤抗蚀、蓄水、保土性能;培肥地力和提高作物产量,都具有显著作用。该文着重分析了效果明显的8种耕作技术及其特征,供决策部门在制订规划时参考。     

Soil properties affect crop yield changes under conservation agriculture: A systematic analysis

Conservation agriculture (CA) has the potential to sustain soil productivity and benefit agroecosystems, yet it is not fully understood how yield responses of different cropping systems are affected by inherent soil characteristics, for example, texture and dynamic soil properties, such as aggregation, nutrients and erosion. In this study, we conducted a systematic review to compare crop yield from cropland with conventional management versus different CA practices, specifically reduced- or no-tillage, agroforestry, organic farming and cover crops. The data were first analysed for different climatic regions, soil textures and cash crop types. We then quantified how yield responses correlated with soil properties change under different CA practices. The results showed that CA practices were associated with an overall mean crop yield increase of 12%. This response was primarily driven by corn, which had a mean yield increase of almost 41% after CA implementation, whereas other cash crops did not have significant yield responses or showed slight decreases, as rotation with mixtures of multiple cash crops had a mean decrease of 6% when using CA. The increase in corn yield after CA may be related to the enhanced ability of that crop to absorb nutrient elements (e.g. nitrogen) and reduce nutrient leaching. Agroforestry increased crop yield by 66% and cover cropping increased yield by 11%, likely due to increases in soil water content and nutrient availability and decreases in erosion and surface runoff. However, other agricultural systems showed no significant increase after CA compared with conventional row cropping practices. Using CA practices had the greatest yield benefit in tropical climates and when farming in coarse-textured soils. In addition, legumes and grass-legume mixtures resulted in significant cash crop yield increases, possibly because legumes promoted the increase of soil nitrogen and depleted soil moisture less compared with other cover crops. The results provide new insight into how interactions between soil properties and CA practices affect crop yield and at the same time can help guide the development of practical, evidence-based guidelines for using conservation practices to improve yield in corn and other cash crops.     

冰岛水土保持研究介绍

介绍了冰岛的土壤侵蚀演变，水土保持措施及成效，水土保持组织和环境修复技术。冰岛土壤侵蚀演变的驱动力主要有植被破坏、过度放牧、严酷的气候条件和火山爆发。控制放牧密度和开展环境修复是冰岛最主要的水土保持措施。     

气候变化下黄土高原耕作系统演变与适应性管理

耕作系统主要包括土壤系统、作物系统和区域气候系统等几个相对独立、但又紧密关联的组成部分,涉及作物栽培模式、作物类型、杂草和病虫害及农田水土资源管理等方面,在黄土高原生态系统管理和农业可持续发展中占有重要地位。过去50a (1951-2000年),黄土高原的年平均气温升高了1.1℃,且其变率逐渐增加,降雨和热量资源分布呈现复杂的时空异质性。作物种植区域的变迁、熟制制度的演变和农田灾害的加剧促使农田管理模式不断寻求改变,对当地农业耕作系统产生了深远影响。本文总结了黄土高原过去多年的气候变化（气温、降水量、积温）特征和发展趋势,气候变化下耕作系统（种植区、耕作制度、土壤环境）和作物系统（需水量、物候、品种、产量）的演变规律,作物与土壤互作关系,以及气象灾害对黄土高原耕作系统的影响,并提出气候变化下耕作系统适应性管理途径和策略。旨在为黄土高原耕作技术和田间管理提供新的理论,寻求气候变化下区域农业可持续发展应对策略。     

Quantitative assessment of rill and interrill soil erosion in Romania

Soil erosion is an important geomorphological process with potential negative consequences especially on land agricultural potential. Unsuitable agricultural practices may increase soil erosion, leading to rapid loss of soil fertility and decrease of crop production. It is therefore important to correctly quantify soil erosion rates in order to adapt agricultural practices and implement proper conservation measures. This study attempts to assess the rill and interrill erosion in Romania, using the Romanian soil erosion model and GIS techniques. The database includes the digital terrain model, the soil map of Romania, the land use map of Romania and the rainfall erosivity regions. The results show that the high and very high erosion risk classes include 4.1% of the Romanian territory (9,627 km²). Most of this land is present in the hilly and plateau areas (Subcarpathians, Moldavian Plateau, Getic Plateau, Western Hills, Dobrogea Plateau). The model was validated by comparison of its predictions with long‐term erosion measurements from different locations in the country. Comparison with previous non‐GIS assessments of soil erosion at national level shows that the total estimated rill and interrill erosion in our study was very close to previous estimates. Comparison with the RUSLE 2015 model computed for Europe as a whole reveals that the two models assign almost 54% of their shared area to the same erosion class, while for 39% of the territory there is one class difference between the models. The results can be used for evaluations of erosion risk at national and regional scales.     

黄土区旱塬农田生产力提高对土壤水分循环的影响

黄土高原旱塬土层深厚,地下水一般不参与土壤水分的垂直交换,农田水分循环模式是土壤-植物-大气类型。近几十年来,由于黄土区旱作农田生产力的不断提高,农田土壤水分循环出现新的特点。以农田长期定位试验资料为基础对这一新特点进行了分析,结果指出旱作农田生产力提高对土壤水分循环的影响表现在土壤水分利用层加深、降雨入渗深度减少和土壤干燥化     

北方农牧交错带不同农作制度对土壤风蚀因子的影响

不合理的农作制度是引发北方农牧交错带土壤风蚀的重要原因。以内蒙古武川旱农试验区为基地,研究了撂荒制、压青休闲制、粗放轮作制、保护性耕作制4种农作制度对风速、土壤紧实度、地表粗糙度、地表覆盖度、土壤有机质含量、表层土壤含水率、土壤风蚀量等因子的影响。结果表明,保护性耕作能够显著降低土壤风蚀,有效防止土地荒漠化。当前,北方农牧交错带应重点推广保护性耕作制,促进农业生产的可持续发展。     

小塔山水库流域水土保持与河流泥沙特性分析

为了了解淮河流域近年来水土流失的特点,分析造成水土流失的主导因素,本文采用黑林水文站12年的降水、径流及泥沙资料,根据流域水土保持与河流泥沙分布情况相关性,通过分析降水量与径流量及径流量与含沙量之间的相互关系,总结了流域水土流失特点及造成水土流失的主要原因,结果表明近年来生产建设活动等人为因素是造成流域内水土流失的主要因素,以期为流域今后水土保持工作重点提供参考依据。     

Effects of double drilling of small grains on soil erosion by concentrated flow and crop yield

Soil erosion on agricultural land and its detrimental environmental and economical effects has aroused increased interest among both the research and policy-making communities. The call for erosion control measures adapted to local farming practices is high, especially in Europe where farmers are reluctant to adopt soil conservation techniques. This study investigates a new technique for controlling concentrated flow erosion rates in the loess belt of central Belgium: i.e. double drilling of cereals in zones of concentrated flow. Cross-sectional areas of erosion channels as well as crop yield parameters in single- and double-drilled zones were compared. The technique is based on the combined effect of the increased density of plant shoots and roots for reducing soil loss. Results indicate that double drilling can reduce soil loss through concentrated flow by 25% on average and by up to 40% under optimal conditions. No net change in wheat grain yield was observed, and farmers who participated in the experiments were satisfied with the results and the easy application of the technique. Globally, benefits were larger than costs. However, the effectiveness of the technique in reducing soil loss by concentrated flow erosion seems to be topographically restricted. For positions in the landscape with a contributing drainage area larger than ca. 0.75 ha, the effectiveness of double drilling can be doubted. Double drilling should therefore be regarded as one possibility amongst others to reduce concentrated flow erosion rates in farmers’ fields.