Inhibition of egg development by phosphine in the cosmopolitan pest of stored products Liposcelis bostrychophila (Psocoptera: Liposcelididae)

Phosphine-induced delay in development of eggs was investigated as a mechanism of resistance to this fumigant in Liposcelis bostrychophila Badonnel. One-day-old eggs of a susceptible and a strongly resistant strain of L bostrychophila were exposed to a range of phosphine concentrations for 6days at 30 (+/- 1) degrees C and 70 (+/- 2)% RH. Delay in mean hatching period occurred in both susceptible and resistant eggs, although it was more pronounced in the latter. A maximum delay of 2.65 days was recorded for eggs of the susceptible strain at 0.01 mg litre(-1) (the highest concentration at which eggs survived) and 13.39 days for the resistant strain at 1 mg litre(-1) (the highest concentration tested). Delay in egg development time was positively correlated with increasing phosphine concentration. Our results reveal that the most successful strategy to control resistant L bostrychophila is to apply relatively low concentrations of phosphine for extended exposure times (eg 0.05 mg litre(-1) for 16 days) that allow all eggs to hatch to the much less tolerant nymph stage.     

吡丙醚和烯虫酯对嗜卷书虱控制作用的研究

采用饲料混毒法系统测定了吡丙醚和烯虫酯两种昆虫生长调节剂(IGRs)对重要的储藏物害虫嗜卷书虱Liposcelis bostrychophila Badonnel若虫和成虫的致死作用,对若虫发育情况、成虫繁殖力和卵孵化率的影响。结果表明,以吡丙醚和烯虫酯10 mg/kg的混毒饲料饲喂嗜卷书虱2龄幼虫49 d后,若虫的死亡率分别为80.00%和31.11%;取食20、10和5 mg/kg吡丙醚的若虫最长存活天数分别为71.0、98.2和116.4 d,而对照仅11.3 d即全部羽化为成虫;取食20 mg/kg以下烯虫酯混毒饲料的若虫一部分仍可羽化成成虫,而且成虫仍可繁殖后代;取食吡丙醚混毒饲料的若虫,60 d后存活下来的若虫大多以超龄若虫的形式存在,而取食烯虫酯的若虫则很少出现超龄若虫。成虫取食烯虫酯(200 mg/kg)和吡丙醚(40 mg/kg)混毒饲料后7 d,死亡率分别为26.67%和23.33%,成虫产卵量分别是对照的39.77%和26.13%,产卵后15 d,卵的孵化率分别是65.71%和8.69%,而对照仅为93.18%。该项研究表明,采用40 mg/kg吡丙醚和200 mg/kg的烯虫酯对嗜卷书虱虫口数量有明显的控制作用。     

关于鲍氏虱(虫齿)和地虱(虫齿)的再描述

除危害各种储藏物 ,虱属昆虫也可随活体植物、木材、木质包装、废纸、土壤等进行远距离传播。为便于口岸检疫人员及时、准确鉴定所截获的虱属昆虫 ,本文记述了该属 2种中国新记录 ,即鲍氏虱liposcelisbouilloniBadonnel和地虱L .edaphicaLienhard ,并对其进行了再描述     

两种世界性仓储虱的重新描述

仓储虱在我国口岸检疫中常有截获。本文针对两种世界性仓储虱 ,即中国新记录虚伪虱LiposcelismendaxPearman和红虱L .rufaBroadhead ,进行了重新描述。 2种虱均可危害室内储藏物 ,分别属ⅡC种团和ⅠB种团 ,世界分布较广 ,我国仅发现于河南省     

Toxicological and biochemical characterizations of AChE in Liposcelis bostrychophila Badonnel (Psocoptera: Liposcelididae)

The toxicological and biochemical characteristics of acetylcholinesterases (AChE) in the resistant and susceptible strains (SS) of Liposcelis bostrychophila were investigated. The two resistant strains were the dichlorvos-resistant strain (DDVP-R) and the phosphine-resistant strain (PH₃-R) with resistance ratios of 22.36 and 4.51, respectively. Compared to their susceptible counterpart, the AChE activity per insect and the specific activity of AChE in DDVP-R and PH₃-R were significantly higher. There were also significant kinetic differences between DDVP-R and PH₃-R. The apparent Michaelis-Menten constant (K_m) for acetylthiocholine iodide (ATChI) was obviously lower in SS than that in PH₃-R, indicating a higher affinity to the substrate ATChI in the susceptible strains. The affinity for the substrate ATChI in DDVP-R and SS were not significantly different. The V_max value of the PH₃-R was significantly greater when compared to the V_max for the SS suggesting a possible over expression of AChE in this resistant strain. The inhibition of AChE to insecticide exposure in vitro revealed that all six insecticides were inhibitory for the extracted AChE’s. Based on the I₅₀ values, AChE of the SS were more sensitive to dichlorvos, paraoxon-ethyl, malaoxon and demeton-S-methyl than those of the two resistant strains. As for carbaryl and eserine, the PH₃-R suggested a significantly higher I₅₀s compared to the susceptible strain, while, no significant differences were found between SS and DDVP-R.     

Effects of time and concentration on mortality of phosphine-resistant Sitophilus oryzae (L) fumigated with phosphine

The effects of exposure period and phosphine concentration on mortality of susceptible and resistant Sitophilus oryzae (L) were investigated. Although S oryzae is one of the world's most serious pests of stored grain there are few data on the practical significance of phosphine resistance in this species. The strains investigated were an Australian susceptible strain, a homozygous resistant strain exhibiting a level of resistance common in Australia and an unselected field strain from China with a much stronger resistance. Fumigations were carried out at 25 degrees C on adults and mixed-age cultures. For adults of all three strains and mixed-age cultures of the susceptible and resistant Australian strains, the relationship between concentration and time could be described by equations of the form Cnt = k. In all cases n < 1, indicating that time was a more important variable than concentration. In all fumigations of adults the resistant strains were harder to kill than the susceptible strain. However, in fumigations of mixed-age cultures, which contained the tolerant pupal stage, the difference between susceptible and resistant strains was more pronounced at lower concentrations than higher concentrations. For example, at 0.02 mg litre-1 the estimated LT99.9 for mixed-age cultures of the Australian resistant strain (27 days) is 3.4 times that of the susceptible strain (8 days), but at 1 mg litre-1 there is no difference between the two strains (4 days). Limited data on the Chinese resistant strain supported this finding. Twenty-three days exposure at 0.02 mg litre-1 had no effect on mixed-age cultures of this strain, but there were no survivors after 5 days exposure to 1 mg litre-1.     

Long-term effectiveness of grain protectants and structural treatments against Liposcelis decolor (Pearman) (Psocoptera: Liposcelididae), a pest of stored products

Numerous strains of the psocid pest, Liposcelis decolor (Pearman) were collected from farms and central storages and interbred to form three representative strains from three major grain-growing states of Australia: Queensland, South Australia and New South Wales. These were tested against the grain protectants and structural treatments currently registered for use in Australia. Recently, L decolor has become an important pest of stored grain in Australia, particularly in the eastern and southern parts. There is no published information available on management of this pest and the current pest-management strategy, based predominantly on phosphine fumigation, has failed to control infestations of this pest in numerous grain storages in Australia. Alternative methods of control such as use of contact insecticides were explored in the present work to supplement phosphine fumigation to manage this new pest. From eight grain protectants tested as admixtures, only chlorpyrifos-methyl, bioresmethrin plus piperonyl butoxide, and fenitrothion were found to provide long term (3-9 months) protection against all three strains of L decolor. Chlorpyrifos-methyl gave the best protection, providing a minimum of 7.5 to a maximum of 9 months protection, depending on the strains tested. Three structural treatments, azamethiphos, azamethiphos plus carbaryl and permethrin provided long-term control (8-9 months) of all three strains of L decolor on galvanised steel surfaces, with permethrin delivering 9 months protection against all strains. However, all of these treatments failed to provide long-term control of any strains on concrete surfaces. We conclude that chlorpyrifos-methyl as a grain admixture can be incorporated into fumigation strategies to optimise the control of L decolor infestations. Structural treatments, such as permethrin can be used to support a fumigation strategy in storages made of galvanised steel.     

Potential of piperonyl butoxide‐synergised pyrethrins against psocids (Psocoptera: Liposcelididae) for stored‐grain protection

BACKGROUND: Piperonyl butoxide (PB)‐synergised natural pyrethrins (pyrethrin:PB ratio 1:4) were evaluated both as a grain protectant and a disinfestant against four Liposcelidid psocids: Liposcelis bostrychophila Badonnel, L. entomophila (Enderlein), L. decolor (Pearman) and L. paeta Pearman. These are key storage pests in Australia that are difficult to control with the registered grain protectants and are increasingly being reported as pests of stored products in other countries. Firstly, mortality and reproduction of adults were determined in wheat freshly treated at 0.0, 0.75, 1.5, 3 and 6 mg kg^?1 of pyrethrins + PB (1:4) at 30 ± 1 °C and 70 ± 2% RH. Next, wheat treated at 0.0, 1.5, 3 and 6 mg kg^?1 of pyrethrins + PB (1:4) was stored at 30 ± 1 °C and 70 ± 2% RH and mortality and reproduction of psocids were assessed after 0, 1.5, 3 and 4.5 months of storage. Finally, the potential of synergised pyrethrins as a disinfestant was assessed by establishing time to endpoint mortality for adult psocids exposed to wheat treated at 3 and 6 mg kg^?1 of synergised pyrethrins after 0, 3, 6, 9 and 12 h of exposure. RESULTS: Synergised pyrethrins at 6 mg kg^?1 provided 3 months of protection against all four Liposcelis spp., and at this rate complete adult mortality of these psocids can be achieved within 6 h of exposure. CONCLUSION: Piperonyl butoxide‐synergised pyrethrins have excellent potential both as a grain protectant and as a disinfestant against Liposcelidid psocids. Copyright © State of Queensland, Department of Employment, Economic Development and Innovation, 2010. Published by John Wiley and Sons, Ltd.     

Detection and characterisation of strong resistance to phosphine in Brazilian Rhyzopertha dominica (F.) (Coleoptera: Bostrychidae)

As failure to control Rhyzopertha dominica (F.) with phosphine is a common problem in the grain-growing regions of Brazil, a study was undertaken to investigate the frequency, distribution and strength of phosphine resistance in R. dominica in Brazil. Nineteen samples of R. dominica were collected between 1991 and 2003 from central storages where phosphine fumigation had failed to control this species. Insects were cultured without selection until testing in 2005. Each sample was tested for resistance to phosphine on the basis of the response of adults to discriminating concentrations of phosphine (20 and 48 h exposures) and full dose-response assays (48 h exposure). Responses of the Brazilian R. dominica samples were compared with reference susceptible, weak-resistance and strong-resistance strains from Australia in parallel assays. All Brazilian population samples showed resistance to phosphine: five were diagnosed with weak resistance and 14 with strong resistance. Five samples showed levels of resistance similar to the reference strong-resistance strain. A representative highly resistant sample was characterised by exposing mixed-age cultures to a range of constant concentrations of phosphine for various exposure periods. Time to population extinction (TPE) and time to 99.9% suppression of population (LT(99.9)) values of this sample were generally similar to those of the reference strong-resistance strain. For example, at 0.1, 0.5 and 1.0 mg L(-1), LT(99.9) values for BR33 and the reference strong-resistance strain were respectively 21, 6.4 and 3.7 days and 17, 6.2 and 3.8 days. With both strains, doubling phosphine concentrations to 2 mg L(-1) resulted in increased LT(99.9) and TPE. High level and frequency of resistance in all population samples, some of which had been cultured without selection for up to 12 years, suggest little or no fitness deficit associated with phosphine resistance. The present research indicates that widespread phosphine resistance may be developing in Brazil. Fumigation practices should be monitored and resistance management plans implemented to alleviate further resistance development.     

纯磷化氢熏蒸对桃小食心虫的毒力作用

桃小食心虫在我国温带水果主产区广泛分布,严重威胁水果出口贸易。为明确纯磷化氢熏蒸处理桃小食心虫的可能性,本文系统研究了纯磷化氢在不同温度条件下对桃小食心虫的毒力。耐受性分析结果表明,桃小食心虫各虫态对磷化氢的耐受力有很大差别,1~2龄幼虫耐受性最弱,5龄老熟幼虫耐受性最强。室内毒力试验结果表明,25℃,0.14~0.70mg/L磷化氢熏蒸5龄老熟幼虫81~199h或15℃,0.28~0.84 mg/L磷化氢熏蒸136~166h,桃小食心虫死亡率可达99%;在25℃和15℃下,试虫达到一定死亡率的气体浓度、时间乘积(CT)关系式分别为k=C0.5 T和k=C0.2 T,说明在本试验所取浓度范围内,处理时间是影响磷化氢对桃小食心虫老熟幼虫毒力作用的主要因素,相同条件下高温比低温更有利于磷化氢熏蒸杀虫。本文首次对不同温度条件下纯磷化氢熏蒸桃小食心虫的毒力作用进行了系统研究,明确了纯磷化氢熏蒸技术在水果携带桃小食心虫的检疫处理中极具应用前景。     

Purification and biochemical characterization of glutathione S-transferases from three strains of Liposcelis bostrychophila Badonnel (Psocoptera: Liposcelididae): Implication of insecticide resistance

Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) catalyzing the conjugation of reduced glutathione (GSH) to a vast range of xenobiotics including insecticides were investigated in the psocid Liposcelis bostrychophila Badonnel. GSTs from susceptible and two resistant strains (DDVP-R for dichlorvos-resistant strain and PH₃-R for phosphine-resistant strain) of L. bostrychophila were purified by glutathione-agarose affinity chromatography and characterized by their Michaelis-Menten kinetics towards artificial substrates, i.e., 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (CDNB), in a photometric microplate assay. The specific activities of GSTs purified from two resistant strains were significantly higher than their susceptible counterpart. For the resistant strains, GSTs both showed a significantly higher affinity to the substrate GSH while a declined affinity to CDNB than those of susceptible strain. The inhibitory potential of ethacrynic acid was very effective with highest I₅₀ value (the concentration required to inhibit 50% of GSTs activity) of 1.21 μM recorded in DDVP-R. Carbosulfan also exhibited excellent inhibitory effects on purified GSTs. The N-terminus of the purified enzyme was sequenced by Edman degradation, and the alignment of first 13 amino acids of the N-terminal sequence with other insect GSTs suggested the purified protein was similar to those of Sigma class GSTs.     

Combined treatments of spinosad and chlorpyrifos-methyl for management of resistant psocid pests (Psocoptera: Liposcelididae) of stored grain

The combined efficacy of spinosad and chlorpyrifos-methyl was determined against four storage psocid pests belonging to genus Liposcelis. This research was undertaken because of the increasing importance of these psocids in stored grain and the problem of finding grain protectants to control resistant strains. Firstly, mortality and reproduction were determined for adults exposed to wheat freshly treated with either spinosad (0.5 and 1 mg kg(-1)) or chlorpyrifos-methyl (2.5, 5 and 10 mg kg(-1)) or combinations of spinosad and chlorpyrifos-methyl at 30 degrees C and 70% RH. There were significant effects of application rate of spinosad and chlorpyrifos-methyl, both individually and in combination, on adult mortality and progeny reduction of all four psocids. Liposcelis bostrychophila Badonnel and L. decolor (Pearman) responded similarly, with incomplete control of adults and progeny at both doses of spinosad but complete control in all chlorpyrifos-methyl and combined treatments. In L. entomophila (Enderlein) and L. paeta Pearman, however, complete control of adults and progeny was only achieved in the combined treatments, with the exception of spinosad 0.5 mg kg(-1) plus chlorpyrifos-methyl 2.5 mg kg(-1) against L. entomophila. Next, combinations of spinosad (0.5 and 1 mg kg(-1)) and chlorpyrifos-methyl (2.5, 5 and 10 mg kg(-1)) in bioassays after 0, 1.5 and 3 months storage of treated wheat were evaluated. The best treatment was 1 mg kg(-1) of spinosad plus 10 mg kg(-1) of chlorpyrifos-methyl, providing up to 3 months of protection against infestations of all four Liposcelis spp. on wheat.     

Strong resistance to phosphine in the rusty grain beetle,Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Stephens) (Coleoptera: Laemophloeidae): its characterisation,a rapid assay for diagnosis and its distribution in Australia

BACKGROUND: The recent development of very high resistance to phosphine in rusty grain beetle, Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Stephens), seriously threatens stored‐grain biosecurity. The aim was to characterise this resistance, to develop a rapid bioassay for its diagnosis to support pest management and to document the distribution of resistance in Australia in 2007–2011. RESULTS: Bioassays of purified laboratory reference strains and field‐collected samples revealed three phenotypes: susceptible, weakly resistant and strongly resistant. With resistance factors of > 1000 × , resistance to phosphine expressed by the strong resistance phenotype was higher than reported for any stored‐product insect species. The new time‐to‐knockdown assay rapidly and accurately diagnosed each resistance phenotype within 6 h. Although less frequent in western Australia, weak resistance was detected throughout all grain production regions. Strong resistance occurred predominantly in central storages in eastern Australia. CONCLUSION: Resistance to phosphine in the rusty grain beetle is expressed through two identifiable phenotypes: weak and strong. Strong resistance requires urgent changes to current fumigation dosages. The development of a rapid assay for diagnosis of resistance enables the provision of same‐day advice to expedite resistance management decisions. © 2012 Commonwealth of Australia. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Predicting mortality of phosphine-resistant adults of Sitophilus oryzae (L) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in relation to changing phosphine concentration

Adults of a phosphine-resistant strain of Sitophilus oryzae (L) were exposed to constant phosphine concentrations of 0.0035-0.9mg litre(-1) for periods of between 20 and 168h at 25 degrees C, and the effects of time and concentration on mortality were quantified. Adults were also exposed to a series of treatments lasting 48, 72 or 168 h at 25 degrees C, during which the concentration of phosphine was varied. The aim of this study was to determine whether equations from experiments using constant concentrations could be used to predict the efficacy of changing phosphine concentrations against adults of S oryzae. A probit plane without interaction, in which the logarithms of time (t) and concentration (C) were variables, described the effects of concentration and time on mortality in experiments with constant concentrations. A derived equation of the form C(n)t = k gave excellent predictions of toxicity when applied to data from changing concentration experiments. The results suggest that for resistant S oryzae adults there is nothing inherently different between constant and changing concentration regimes, and that data collected from fixed concentrations can be used to develop equations for predicting mortality in fumigations in which phosphine concentration changes. This approach could simplify the prediction of efficacy of typical fumigations in which concentrations tend to rise and then fall over a period of days.     

Effect of exposure period on degree of dominance of phosphine resistance in adults of Rhyzopertha dominica (Coleoptera: Bostrychidae) and Sitophilus oryzae (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Degree of dominance of phosphine resistance was investigated in adults of Rhyzopertha dominica F and Sitophilus oryzae L. Efficacy of the grain fumigant phosphine depends on both concentration and exposure period, which raises the possibility that dominance levels vary with exposure period. New and published data were used to test this possibility in adults of R dominica and S oryzae fumigated for periods of up to 144 h. The concentrations required for control of homozygous resistant and susceptible strains and their F1 hybrids decreased with increasing exposure period. For both species the response lines for the homozygous resistant and susceptible strains and their F1 hybrids were parallel. Therefore, neither dominance level nor resistance factor was affected by exposure period. Resistance was incompletely recessive and the level of dominance, calculated at 50% mortality level, was -0.59 for R dominica and -0.65 for S oryzae. The resistant R dominica strain was 30.9 times more resistant than the susceptible strain, compared with 8.9 times for the resistant S oryzae strain. The results suggest that developing discriminating doses for detecting heterozygote adults of either species will be difficult.     

Influence of phosphine on hatching of Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Coleoptera: Cucujidae), Lasioderma serricorne (Coleoptera: Anobiidae) and Oryzaephilus surinamensis (Coleoptera: Silvanidae)

The hatching and mortality response of 0- to 48-h-old eggs of field strains of the stored-product insects Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Stephens), Lasioderma serricorne (F) and Oryzaephilus surinamensis (L) following phosphine fumigation for 24, 48 or 120 h at 27 (+/- 2) degrees C was investigated. Hatching was delayed and reduced in the first few days in a phosphine-resistant strain of C ferrugineus that was treated with 2.0-7.0 mg litre(-1) doses for 48 h (5-80% mortality) and with 1.0-2.0 mg litre(-1) for 120 h (44-84% mortality). In both the exposures there were significant increases in hatching on later days when compared with the corresponding controls. Developmental delay was, however, not evident in susceptible strains of C ferrugineus, L serricorne and O surinamensis that were exposed to phosphine for 24 h.     

Comparison of biochemical and toxicological characterizations of glutathione S-transferases and superoxide dismutase between Liposcelis bostrychophila Badonnel and L. entomophila (Enderlein) (Psocoptera: Liposcelididae)

The toxicological and biochemical characteristics of glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) in Liposcelis bostrychophila and L. entomophila were comparatively investigated. Compared to their counterparts in L. entomophila, the activities of both GSTs and SOD from L. bostrychophila were significantly higher (P < 0.05), indicating that there was a stronger ability to eliminate the toxicants in the latter. The inhibition kinetics of insecticides revealed that dichlorvos and paraoxon possessed excellent inhibitory effects on GSTs in vitro, while there were some activated effects of chlorpyrifos on GSTs, more significant in L. entomophila. As for SOD in vivo, dichlorvos and chlorpyrifos had some inhibitory effects under the condition of sublethal concentration. However, the situation of carbosulfan was a little complex. Within the first 3 h treatment period there were facilitated effects on SOD in L. bostrychophila, and some expressed inhibitory effects. While in L. entomophila carbosulfan always possessed inhibitory effects on SOD.