Moisture Distribution and Texture of Various Types of Cooked Spaghetti

Cooked spaghetti of various types (fresh, dried, frozen, luncheon, and long‐life spaghetti) was examined for moisture distribution by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Moisture content was calculated from spinspin relaxation time (T₂) of water proton, based on the correlation between T₂ and moisture content of pulverized durum semolina standard gel samples. Boiled samples of dried and frozen spaghetti had a distinct low moisture region at the center, which was not clearly observed in the other types of boiled spaghetti samples. In particular, the moisture content of boiled long‐life spaghetti was almost homogeneous. Texture of cooked spaghetti samples was evaluated using the force‐distance curve of a mechanical property test. For dried and frozen spaghetti, higher force was observed at the region corresponding to the low moisture core compared with the other types. The luncheon spaghetti and long‐life spaghetti showed a lower breaking force and a larger dip after the peak force representing soft and brittle texture caused by moisture homogeneity. These results indicated that MRI could be used for the quality evaluation of cooked spaghetti through imaging of the moisture distribution, which reflects the mechanical property.     

海鳗盐渍过程的动力学和热力学

该文通过对盐渍过程海鳗肌肉中的食盐、水分、质量和密度的变化来研究氯化钠扩散动力学和热力学,以期了解海鳗盐渍过程的基本机制。结果表明,鱼体体积变化与水分失去,水分失去与食盐获得之间具有良好的线性关系,相关系数分别为0.998和0.994。水分失去和食盐获得随着时间变化的拟合相关系数都为0.992,其平均相对误差分别为4.62%和4.87%,动力学模型能很好地与实验数据相吻合。动力学预示的鱼体体积、水分和食盐含量变化,可作为确定腌制时间的依据。热力学研究表明,盐的扩散系数是温度和初始盐渍浓度的函数,活化能的大小表示了温度对扩散过程的影响,活化能随着初始盐渍浓度增加而减小。当鱼体盐浓度较小时,温度是加速腌制的重要因素。     

水果在热风干燥中的水分扩散分形模型

为了探讨水果在热风干燥过程中微观结构变化对水分扩散规律和干燥速率快慢的影响,该文用迂曲分形维数描述了香蕉内部孔道分布的联通性,用面积分形维数描述了内部孔道的不均匀性。研究表明,在有效扩散系数-香蕉厚度平方线形变化关系图中,轴向扩散系数大小为直线在Y轴上截距,径向扩散系数大小为直线斜率,并且轴向扩散系数远大于径向扩散系数,水分扩散系数在干燥样本中径向与轴向的巨大差异表明了香蕉在结构上具有异质性。随着面积分形维数的增大,导致干燥时间减小和有效扩散系数增大。由孔隙率与孔径比的变化而导致干燥时间和有效扩散系数的变化与面积分形变化引起的规律相近。随着迂曲分形维数的增大,使得干燥时间增加和有效扩散系数减小。扩散系数随体积变化率成对数增加。该研究可为脱水果蔬干燥技术研究提供参考。     

基于图像处理的过热蒸汽与热风干燥污泥收缩特性分析

为了解污泥过热蒸汽与热风干燥过程收缩特性,搭建了常压过热蒸汽和热风干燥试验台,选用直径为50 mm厚度为10 mm的污泥样品在160和200℃下进行试验。利用图像处理技术分析干燥过程污泥收缩现象及特性,采用叠加技术,建立了基于无限大平板和无限长圆柱体叠加而成的有限圆平板在考虑收缩情况下的Fick第二定律湿分扩散模型,并结合经验模型推导出计算有效扩散系数的表达式。结果表明：污泥在干燥过程中存在明显的收缩现象,前段干燥收缩幅度大,后段干燥收缩幅度小,收缩变化规律与水分变化规律一致。160、200℃污泥过热蒸汽与热风干燥终了时刻体积比约为0.3,体积收缩系数为0.7。过热蒸汽干燥和热风干燥对污泥的收缩影响一致。160、200℃污泥过热蒸汽与热风干燥有效扩散系数的变化与水分比的变化相对应。在考虑污泥收缩的条件下,160、200℃污泥过热蒸汽干燥平均有效扩散系数分别为1.92×10-8和3.75×10-8 m2/s,热风干燥平均有效扩散系数分别为0.94×10-8和1.31×10-8 m2/s,约为不考虑收缩条件下平均有效扩散系数值的1/2。试验结果为污泥干燥过程机理分析、工艺参数优化和干燥设备开发提供参考。     

Thermal and Moisture Diffusion Properties of Amaranth Seeds

The physical characteristics, thermodynamic and transport properties of amaranth seeds relevant to the modelling and simulation of the drying processes of these seeds were studied. The water activity as a function of the temperature and moisture content was modelled by means of the Henderson's expression from water activity experimental data. The desorption–vaporisation heat was also calculated. From the solution to Fick's second law for a spherical geometry and assuming equilibrium conditions at the solid–gas interface, an effective diffusion coefficient was evaluated from experimental drying curves obtained in a moisture chamber. The effect of taking into account more than one term in the Fourier series solution was analysed and it is concluded that the diffusion coefficient corresponding to two terms in the series leads to better agreement with the experimental results for short times.     

Influence of Raw Materials and Processing Conditions on Spaghetti Hydration Kinetic During Cooking and Overcooking

A study of the influence of raw materials and processing conditions on the hydration kinetic during cooking and overcooking of spaghetti is presented. Water sorption tests on commercially available spaghetti and on three different types of homemade spaghetti were run at 100°C. In particular, the weight, diameter, and length of spaghetti strands were monitored over time for ≈200 min. The spaghetti hydration process was quantitatively resolved into the controlling phenomena (i.e., water diffusion, macromolecular matrix relaxation kinetic, and residual deformation release kinetic) by fitting a novel mathematical model to the experimental data. The different behavior of spaghetti was analyzed for each of the phenomena involved during hydration. Results suggest that processing conditions highly influence the quality of spaghetti with respect to raw materials.     

THE MEASUREMENT AND MECHANISM OF ION DIFFUSION IN SOILS

Integral diffusion coefficients for K in two contrasting soils, containing different levels of exchangeable K, are calculated from measurements of diffusive flux to a hydrogen resin paper. The diffusion coefficients are larger, the higher the exchangeable K level or moisture content. Diffusive flux of K in these soils can be accounted for entirely by diffusion through the soil solution in the pores. Impedance factors calculated compare satisfactorily with values for similar soils reported by other workers. The concentration dependence of the diffusion coefficient is shown to be causally related to the nature of the sorption isotherm. A method for estimating the differential diffusion coefficient at any concentration is described. It can also be calculated from the slope of the sorption isotherm at the chosen concentration, if the value of the impedance factor at the relevant moisture content is known and if diffusion other than through solution only is negligible.     

Diffusion of Zinc as Influenced by Physical and Chemical Properties of Soils

The self diffusion coefficients of zinc (D_aZn), determined by half cell technique, were found to be greatly influenced by variations in soil characteristics such as volumetric moisture content, bulk density, temperature, carrier zinc concentration and soil pH. The D_aZn values showed exponential decrease with increase in soil pH but with increasing volumetric moisture content, D_aZn values showed logarithmic increase. The highest D_aZn value was obtained at a compaction of 1.50 g/cm³. Increase in temperature from 5°C to 30°C showed 4 to 20 times increase in D_aZn values. An attempt was made to study the relationship between soil characteristics and D_aZn values for 87 illitic soils differing in physical and chemical properties. The simple and multiple correlation coefficients did not account for more than 21 per cent of variations indicating that D_aZn values cannot be predicted accurately from soil properties.     

Determination of the bulk moisture diffusion coefficient for corn starch using an automated water sorption instrument

The bulk moisture diffusion coefficient (Db) is an important physical parameter of food ingredients and systems. However, the traditional method of measuring Db using saturated salt solutions is very time-consuming and cumbersome. New automated water sorption instruments, which can be used to conveniently and precisely control both relative humidity and temperature, provide a faster, more robust method for collecting the data needed for determining Db. Thus, the objectives of this study were to (1) investigate the use of the DVS instrument for collecting the data needed for determining the adsorption (Dba) and desorption (Dbd) bulk moisture diffusion coefficients for dent corn starch as a function of relative humidity and (2) determine the effect of temperature on Dba for dent corn starch at a constant relative humidity. Kinetic water sorption profiles of dent corn starch were obtained at eight relative humidity values ranging from 10 to 80% at 10% intervals at 25 degrees C and at five temperatures, 15, 20, 25, 30, and 35 degrees C, at 50% relative humidity using a DVS instrument. Db was calculated from the kinetic water sorption profiles using the full solution of Fick's second law for the thin slab model, as well as the slope method, a simplification of the full model. The Dba of dent corn starch at 25 degrees C reached a maximum at intermediate relative humidity values, after which Dba decreased due to a change in the moisture diffusion mechanism from vapor to liquid diffusion. The Dbd of dent corn starch at 25 degrees C remained nearly constant as a function of relative humidity. The Dba for dent corn starch increased as temperature increased from 15 to 35 degrees C, with an activation energy of 38.85 +/- 0.433 kJ/mol.     

土壤水分对冬小麦气孔导度及光合速率的影响与模拟*1

为了更精确掌握水分在作物模型中的贡献,通过田间设置5种不同程度的水分控制试验,分别选择冬小麦抽穗期（2011年4月18日）和开花后期（5月5日）两个典型日,利用Li-6400光合作用仪测定冬小麦叶片气孔导度和光合速率的日变化及其光响应过程,并利用SPSS软件进行分析;考虑土壤湿度因子,对气孔导度模型（Jarvis 模型）和光合模型（非直角双曲线模型）进行修订,利用实测资料拟合得到各项参数,并分析其模拟效果。结果表明,气孔导度、光合速率的日变化与土壤水分含量间呈正相关关系,土壤含水量越少,气孔导度、光合速率越小。加入土壤湿度因子的气孔导度和光合作用模型,两个指标均具有更好的模拟效果,实测值与模拟值之间的相关系数由修订前的0.907、0.769分别提高至0.967、0.987,实测值与模型回代值之间的相关系数也由修订前的0.572、0.316分别提高至0.768、0.874,且均方差均显著降低。因此,土壤湿度对调节冬小麦叶片气孔导度和光合作用非常重要,在气孔导度模拟和光合作用模拟中不能忽略土壤湿度的影响。     

土壤水分对冬小麦气孔导度及光合速率的影响与模拟

为了更精确掌握水分在作物模型中的贡献,通过田间设置5种不同程度的水分控制试验,分别选择冬小麦抽穗期（2011年4月18日）和开花后期（5月5日）两个典型日,利用Li-6400光合作用仪测定冬小麦叶片气孔导度和光合速率的日变化及其光响应过程,并利用SPSS软件进行分析;考虑土壤湿度因子,对气孔导度模型（Jarvis模型）和光合模型（非直角双曲线模型）进行修订,利用实测资料拟合得到各项参数,并分析其模拟效果。结果表明,气孔导度、光合速率的日变化与土壤水分含量间呈正相关关系,土壤含水量越少,气孔导度、光合速率越小。加入土壤湿度因子的气孔导度和光合作用模型,两个指标均具有更好的模拟效果,实测值与模拟值之间的相关系数由修订前的0.907、0.769分别提高至0.967、0.987,实测值与模型回代值之间的相关系数也由修订前的0.572、0.316分别提高至0.768、0.874,且均方差均显著降低。因此,土壤湿度对调节冬小麦叶片气孔导度和光合作用非常重要,在气孔导度模拟和光合作用模拟中不能忽略土壤湿度的影响。     

Starch Retrogradation in Cooked Pasta and Rice

Effect of cooking time on starch retrogradation and water distribution was studied in pasta (spaghetti) and rice (parboiled and arborio) using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) Optimum cooking times (OCT) were 8, 16, and 18.5 min for spaghetti, parboiled, and arborio rice, respectively. Swelling was observed by image analysis. OCT spaghetti and rice showed various starch retrogradation rates at various aging times and temperatures. Based on the classical Avrami function, the retrogradation rate at 5°C followed the order spaghetti > parboiled rice > arborio rice, while extent was in the opposite order. At higher temperature (20°C), the rates decreased by 20× in all cases. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) investigations were undertaken to check the distribution of water within these products and its relationship to starch retrogradation. During heating, water was released in two distinguishable steps at ≈80 and 100°C. Results supported the conclusion that the more tightly bound water might not participate or facilitate starch retrogradation. In this study, the overall water content did not change during storage, and water appeared to migrate from sites of stronger binding to sites of weaker binding. The temperature dependence of the Avrami constant was described with the Vogel‐Tamman‐Fulcher empirical expression.     

Phosphate Diffusion Coefficients in Soil as Affected by Bulk Density and Water Content

Phosphate diffusion coefficients (D_e) were determined by the quantity of P that diffused from a soil block with P addition into a soil block without P addition. To compare the results with theoretical concepts and to quantify the influencing factors, D_e was also calculated using the equation of Nye (1968). This equation takes into account the P diffusion coefficient in water, D₁, the volumetric water content, θ, the impedance factor, f, and the buffer power, b, of the soil. The results show that D_e strongly depends on volumetric water content whereas the effect of bulk density on D_e values was relatively small. If the weighted average buffer power was used, calculated D_e values were in good agreement with measured values at higher soil moisture contents. At θ < 0.22 g cm^?3 the measured values for D_e were smaller than the calculated. This effect is attributed to incomplete contact between the two soil blocks. The only small influence of bulk density on D_e is caused by the fact that bulk density affects both θ and b in a way which compensates each other.     

Study of Calcium Ion Diffusion in Nixtamalized Quality Protein Maize as a Function of Cooking Temperature

In this report, the effect of temperature on the calcium content of Quality Protein Maize (QPM H-368C) during the nixtamalization process as a function of the steeping time for three cooking temperatures (72, 82, and 92°C) is presented. Also, for the first time, we report in physico-chemical terms the end of the cooking stage during the nixtamalization process that was established when the moisture content in corn kernels reached a value of 36% (w/w) with a lime concentration of 1% (w/v), independent of the cooking temperature. Atomic absorption spectroscopy was used to determine the calcium concentration in the whole kernel and in its different anatomical components (pericarp, endosperm, and germ) as well as in 10% of the outermost layers, the next 10%, and the remaining 80% of the endosperm as a function of the steeping time. It was found that if the cooking temperature increases, the calcium content increases also. For steeping times in the range of 5–7 hr, a relative maximum was found in the calcium contents of 0.24, 0.21, and 0.18% (w/w) in QPM H-368 flours at 92, 82, and 72°C, respectively. Calcium was found in the most external layers in the endosperm and minimum diffusion occurs in the internal 80%. Phosphorous was measured by using UV spectroscopy and the results showed that it remains constant at 0.24% throughout the process. Scanning electron microscopy analysis was used to explain the calcium ion diffusion in the kernel. The physical changes in the pericarp govern the calcium diffusion process.     

Determining Wheat Dough Mixing Characteristics from Power Consumption Profile of a Conventional Mixer

A Hobart mixer with a pin‐type attachment was used to mix soft wheat flour dough. Power consumption profiles were measured continuously during mixing for 20 min using a current transducer and a data logging system. Experimental variables were quantity of flour (500, 1,000, and 1,500 g of dry wheat flour), water content (43, 45, and 47%, wb), and mixer speed setting (low, medium, and high). The power consumption profiles were evaluated by moving average and spectral analysis. Peaks in the power consumption profiles were located to determine the optimal mixing time. The optimal mixing times were then compared with storage and viscous moduli measured using a dynamic rheometer to assure the maximum strength of wheat dough at the optimal mixing time. Tolerance was determined using the signal amplitude and phase angle data from spectral analysis. Optimal mixing times of various doughs at medium speed ranged from 510 to 850 sec; low and high flour quantities required longer mixing times than medium quantity of flour. The optimal mixing time increased when the moisture content was lowered. Tolerance was affected by mixing speed and moisture content of flour     

稻谷颗粒内部传质及其应用

本文推导了用于分析稻谷颗粒内部水分扩散的三层体模型。并编制了用于分析干燥和缓苏过程中颗粒内部水分扩散和颗粒降水速度的模拟软件。经验证模拟结果与实验结果能很好的逼近。并利用该软件分析了颗粒内部水分的扩散过程及间歇干燥过程中间歇比和循环周期对降水速度的影响。     

Diffusion of oxygen in cork

This work reports measurements of effective oxygen diffusion coefficient in raw cork. Kinetics of oxygen transfer through cork is studied at 298 K thanks to a homemade manometric device composed of two gas compartments separated by a cork wafer sample. The first compartment contains oxygen, whereas the second one is kept under dynamic vacuum. The pressure decrease in the first compartment is recorded as a function of time. The effective diffusion coefficient D(eff) is obtained by applying Fick's law to transient state using a numerical method based on finite differences. An analytical model derived from Fick's law applied to steady state is also proposed. Results given by these two methods are in close agreement with each other. The harmonic average of the effective diffusion coefficients obtained from the distribution of 15 cork wafers of 3 mm thickness is 1.1 × 10(-9) m(2) s(-1) with a large distribution over four decades. The statistical analysis of the Gaussian distribution obtained on a 3 mm cork wafer is extrapolated to a 48 mm cork wafer, which length corresponds to a full cork stopper. In this case, the probability density distribution gives a mean value of D(eff) equal to 1.6 × 10(-9) m(2) s(-1). This result shows that it is possible to obtain the effective diffusion coefficient of oxygen through cork from short time (few days) measurements performed on a thin cork wafer, whereas months are required to obtain the diffusion coefficient for a full cork stopper. Permeability and oxygen transfer rate are also calculated for comparison with data from other studies.     

Physical properties and moisture retention characteristics of some nigerian soils

Measurements were made of physical characteristics of 119 samples from 23 profiles derived from two parent materials in Nigeria. The laboratory analyses included texture, plasticity and shrinkage characteristics, and a range of soil moisture constants including saturation point and moisture retention at various suctions. Simple and multiple correlation coefficients and regression analyses were conducted to investigate the possibilities of obtaining estimates of soil moisture retention from the textural analysis. Clay and sand contents are correlated with various soil moisture constants. The textural analysis may therefore be used to estimate moisture holding capacity at different suctions for these and similar soils with a predominantly uniform clay mineralogy, dominated by kaolinite and sesquioxides. Moisture retention curves indicate that the “field capacity” for most of these soils is better estimated at 60 or 100 cm of water suction rather than at 0.3 bar. A plot of the pF curves indicated only slight differences between moisture retention at 2 or 3 bar suction and at 15 bar suction.     

PH—Postharvest Technology: Diffusive Drying Kinetics in Wheat,Part 2: applying the Simplified Analytical Solution to Experimental Data

Reanalysis of the drying background in wheat showed that analytical solutions may be employed in this grain to estimate diffusion coefficients by using the simplified equation for short times instead of the time-consuming series. Sixteen thin-layer drying curves of hard wheat were measured (airflow ≈ 0·3 kg m⁻²s⁻¹) covering four air temperatures (35–70°C) at each of four initial moisture content levels (0·189–0·269 decimal, d.b.). Experimental curves of the moisture ratio versus time grouped by initial moisture content showed the expected strong accelerating effect of temperature on drying rate. Besides, when the same curves were grouped by temperature, the moisture ratios corresponding to higher initial moisture contents fell, after some time, consistently faster, showing that the diffusion coefficient should increase somehow with water concentration. The short time simplified diffusive equation fitted each curve very well, with values of the coefficient of determination above 0·99. Values of the diffusion coefficient for the whole kernel ranged from 1·4×10⁻¹¹to 7·1×10⁻¹¹m⁻²s⁻¹, presenting the classical Arrhenius temperature dependency (activation energy ≈ 27·0 kJ mol⁻¹), but with a pre-exponential factor that depends linearly on initial moisture content. This diffusive kinetics is expected to be useful for fast and accurate dryer simulation.     

穿刺协同乙醇预处理对胡萝卜片热风干燥特性影响

干燥效率低导致的能耗高、品质劣变是果蔬热风干燥加工面临的严峻挑战。为改善胡萝卜热风干燥特性,该研究以横切和纵切方式获得的胡萝卜片为研究材料,对其进行穿刺（perforation pretreatment,PT）、乙醇浸渍（alcohol pretreatment,AT）和穿刺协同乙醇浸渍预处理（perforation synergistic alcohol pretreatment,PAT）。研究发现：同未预处理的胡萝卜片相比,PT、AT和PAT预处理技术的应用均显著提高了胡萝卜有效水分扩散系数及热风干燥速率,并将干燥时间缩短10.61%～50.00%,其中PAT样品干燥时间最短。相同预处理方式下,纵切的胡萝卜片相比于横切表现出较高的有效水分扩散系数、较快的干燥速率及较短的干燥时间。进一步,我们提出了PAT预处理具有较高干燥效率的“三重奏机制”：预脱水降低干燥负荷、毛细管流促进水分传质、细胞通透性的增强降低水分传质阻力。在品质方面,PAT预处理显著改善了纵切胡萝卜片的体积收缩、复水性、色泽、总类胡萝卜素和抗坏血酸含量、抗氧化活性及风味等品质特性。因此,为高效获得品质相对较优的脱水胡萝卜,可在其纵向切片后进行PAT预处理。该研究为改善胡萝卜热风干燥提供了一种简单有效的预处理技术,同时也为其他果蔬提质、增效、节能干燥提供参考。