Preparation of Rice Endosperm Protein Isolate by Alkali Extraction

Rice endosperm extraction conditions were optimized by response surface methodology. The optimum alkali extraction conditions were pH 11.0 at 40°C for 3 hr with 8:1 solvent‐to‐solid ratio. The maximum protein yield was 43.1% at these conditions. As the extraction pH was increased from 9.0 to 12.0, protein extractability and content increased but the solubility and emulsifying properties of the extracted protein decreased. The extracted protein was recovered by either isoelectric precipitation (IEP) or ultrafiltration (UF). Ultrafiltering the supernatant with a 5‐kDa hollow fiber membrane concentrated the protein from 1.8 to 16% (dry basis) and the resulting solution was spray‐dried to produce a protein concentrate (RP_UF) with 71% protein. Although RP_IEP contained higher protein (86%) than RP_UF (71%), RP_UF showed higher solubility and emulsifying properties. The solubility of RP_UF was higher (37%) than RP_IEP (15%). RP_UF also demonstrated higher emulsion activity (0.414) and stability (22.4 min) compared with the emulsion activity (0.282) and stability (15.5 min) of RP_IEP. Higher solubility and the soluble nonprotein components of RP_UF contributed to higher emulsifying properties than RP_IEP. The UF provided milder extraction conditions with improved emulsifying properties than conventional IEP.     

Glycosylation and Deamidation of Rice Endosperm Protein for Improved Solubility and Emulsifying Properties

Rice endosperm protein was prepared by alkali-extraction method and subsequently modified by controlled glycosylation (RP_Glu, RP_XG), deamidation (RP_DA), and enzymatic hydrolysis by alcalase (RP_Alc) methods. The RP_Glu and RP_XG were prepared by Maillard type glycosylation with D-glucose and xanthan gum, respectively. The glycosylation improved the emulsion activity (0.721) and stability (26.8 min) of the protein but did not show a substantial improvement in solubility (39.7%). The rice protein modified by controlled alkali-deamidation (RP_DA) showed highest solubility (68%), emulsion activity (0.776), and emulsion stability (24 min) among the three protein modification methods evaluated in this study. The alcalase treatment to 1.8% DH (RP_Alc) slightly improved solubility (33%), emulsion activity (0.468), and emulsion stability (17.5 min) compared with unmodified rice protein (RP), which had 18% solubility, 0.266 emulsion activity, and 14.7 min emulsion stability. The glycosylation and deamidation methods were more effective than the controlled enzymatic hydrolysis by alcalase in improving solubility and emulsifying properties of rice endosperm protein. Glycosylated and deamidated rice endosperm proteins can find application in enhancing emulsifying properties in suitable products.     

Hydrophobicity,Solubility, and Emulsifying Properties of Enzyme-Modified Rice Endosperm Protein

Rice endosperm protein was modified to enhance solubility and emulsifying properties by controlled enzymatic hydrolysis. The optimum degree of hydrolysis (DH) was determined for acid, neutral, and alkaline type proteases. Solubility and emulsifying properties of the hydrolysates were compared and correlated with DH and surface hydrophobicity. DH was positively associated with solubility of resulting protein hydrolysate regardless of the hydrolyzing enzyme, but enzyme specificity and DH interactively determined the emulsifying properties of the protein hydrolysate. The optimum DH was 6–10% for good emulsifying properties of rice protein, depending on enzyme specificity. High hydrophobic and sulfhydryl disulfide (SH-SS) interactions contributed to protein insolubility even at high DH. The exposure of buried hydrophobic regions of protein that accompanied high-temperature enzyme inactivation promoted aggregation and cross-linking of partially hydrolyzed proteins, thus decreasing the solubility and emulsifying properties of the resulting hydrolysate. Due to the highly insoluble nature of rice protein, surface hydrophobicity was not a reliable indicator for predicting protein solubility and emulsifying properties. Solubility and molecular flexibility are the essential factors in achieving good emulsifying properties of rice endosperm protein isolates.     

Functional Properties of 7s Globulin Extracted from Cowpea Vicilins

The seed of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.) is rich in protein and the amino acid profiles of the meal are suitable for human dietary products, but little is known about the structure and chemical properties of the protein extracted from this legume. This study determined the functional properties of two selected cowpea cultivars and their solubility, emulsifying capacity, surface hydrophobicity, and thermal stability. Seeds of red and black cowpea were surface sterilized and the 7s globulin was isolated and purified using column chromatography with Sephacryl S‐300 (Hi‐Prep 26/60) gel column. Also, SDS‐PAGE and protein structure were analyzed using biochemical procedures. At high ionic strength (μ = 0.5), cowpea 7s globulin fraction exhibited better solubility for a wide range of pH levels, higher emulsifying capacities, and greater thermal stability than those obtained at low ionic strength (μ = 0.08). The lowest solubility was observed at pH 5.3–6.4 at the low ionic strength. Emulsifying capacities at high protein concentration were greater when compared with low protein concentration. T_m values of black cowpea globulin fraction were higher than those of red cowpea globulin fraction, whereas the surface hydrophobicity of the globulin fraction in red cowpea was larger than that in black cowpea.     

Estimation of critical limit for zinc in rice soils

Abstract

Twenty surface soil samples wore collectod from Nalnltal Tarai (foot‐ hills of Himalya) where ‘Khaira’ disease (Zn deficiency disease of rice) was prevalent. Rice (Oryza sativa L. variety IR ‐ 8) was grown in pots for 8 weeks after transplanting. Experiments were carried out to find the suitability of five soil Zn extractants viz. dilute acid (HC1 ‐ H₂SO₄) mixture, DTPA‐ (NH₄) ₂CO₃, pH 7.3, dithizono, NH₄ ‐ Ac, pH 4.6 and MgCl₂. Critical limits of available Zn in soils were established for rice crop by old and new Cate and Nelson procedures.

Zn extracted from the soil with NH₄ ‐ Ac, pH 4.6, dithlzono, MgCl₂, and DTPA‐(NH₄) ₂CO₃, pH 7.3 was significantly correlated with the uptake of Zn by the rice plants. The correlation of Zn uptake with dilute acid mixture extractable Zn was not significant. The extractant which extracted more Zn gave higher values of critical limit and vice versa. It is concluded that all extracting solutions except dilute acid mixture were found to be suitable for predicting available Zn in rice soils of Taral.     

Solubility of the labile forms of soil carbon and nitrogen in K2SO4 of different concentrations

The general pattern of the changes in the solubility of the labile carbon and nitrogen compounds with the changes in the concentration of the salt extractant (0.05 and 0.5 M K₂SO₄) has been determined for soils differing in their acidity and in their contents of organic matter and nitrogen. Different forms of extracted compounds react differently to changes in the salt concentration. The solubility of inorganic nitrogen compounds (NH ₄ ⁺ and NO ₃ ^? ) does not depend on the concentration of K₂SO₄. In most cases, the carbon and nitrogen of the microbial biomass manifest a tendency for increasing extractability with an increase in the concentration of the K₂SO₄ solution. A fundamental difference is characteristic of the organic carbon and nitrogen compounds, the solubility of which in 0.5 M K₂SO₄ increases in different soils by 1.5–3.9 times in comparison with their solubility in 0.05 M K₂SO₄.     

Comparison of Mehlich 3‐ and bray 1‐extractable phosphorus levels in a Starr clay loam amended with poultry litter

Abstract

Two soil tests commonly used to characterize the availability of soil phosphorus (P) are Bray P1 (B1) and Mehlich 3 (M3) extradants. The objective of this investigation was to compare M3‐ and B1‐extractable P levels in a Starr clay loam (fine‐loamy mixed thermic Fluventic Dystrochrepts) amended with relatively low to high surface applications of poultry litter (PL). The following eight treatments were applied to the soil for pasture renovation in 1991 and 1992: 1) a control, 2) P application as monocalcium phosphate [Ca(H₂PO₄)₂‐H₂O], 3) P application as Ca(H₂PO₄)₂‐H₂O and nitrogen (N) application as ammonium nitrate (NH₄NO₃) and urea, and 4) five levels of poultry litter (PL) based on N content. The five P levels as PL were 56.6, 113.2, 169.8, 226.4, and 283.0 kg ha^‐1 in 1991, and 49.2, 98.5, 147.7, 196.9, and 246.1 kg ha^‐1 in 1992, respectively. Soil samples were obtained from the 0‐ to 5‐cm layer in the spring of 1992 and 1993 for extractable P determination. Levels of P extracted from all treatments by the M3 and B1 extractants were linearly correlated both years (r²=0.96 in 1991 and r²=0.99 in 1992). However, M3 extracted more P from the PL treatments, whereas B1 extracted more P from the control, P application, and N and P application treatments. Curvilinear relationships were obtained between P uptake and levels of either M3‐ or B1‐extractable P for the PL treatments (r²=0.713 for M3 and 0.663 for B1 in 1991 and r²=0.925 for M3 and 0.933 for B1 in 1992). These close relationships in 1992 between extractable P and uptake of P for the PL‐ treated soils indicate that both the B1 and M3 extractants could be used to evaluate excess P in PL‐amended soils.     

Physiological responses and adaptive strategies of wheat seedlings to salt and alkali stresses

Abstract

Effects of salt (NaCl?:?Na₂SO₄) and alkali (NaHCO₃?:?Na₂CO₃) stresses on the contents of inorganic ions and organic solutes in wheat shoots were compared to explore the physiological responses and adaptive strategies of wheat to these stresses. Wheat significantly accumulated Na⁺ and simultaneously accumulated Cl^?, soluble sugars and proline to maintain osmotic and ionic balance under salt stress. Compared with salt stress, the high pH from alkali stress enhanced Na⁺ accumulation and affected the absorption of inorganic anions. To maintain ionic and osmotic balance, wheat accumulated organic acids, soluble sugars and proline. The accumulation of Cl^? and organic acids was the main difference in the physiological responses and adaptive mechanisms to salt and alkali stresses, respectively.     

小流域水文循环过程中蒸散发量模拟方法评价

蒸散发(ET)在农业灌溉和水资源管理中起着重要作用。ET可通过FAO-Penman-Monteith方法(ET_(FPM))进行准确估算,ET_(FPM)方法是ET估算的标准参考方法,此方法需要提供更为详实的气象数据。对于ET的估算,需要寻找使用较少的输入数据,而不会影响预测准确性的替代方法。研究运用5个基于辐射的模型,包括Makkink(ET_(MAK))、Priestley和Taylor(ET_(PT))、Abtew(ET_(ABT))、Jensen-Haise(ET_(JH))、McGuinness和Bordne(ET_(MB)),3个基于温度的模型,包括Hargreaves and Samani(ET_(HS))、Hamon(ET_(HAM))和Linacre(ET_(LIN)),以及1个基于空气动力学的模型Penman(ET_(PEN)),通过使用韩仓河流域周边6个气象水文站的长期数据,将选取的模型与ET_(FPM)模型在月尺度和生长季节尺度上进行比较评价。结果表明,ET_(JH)、ET_(HAM)分别是67%,33%研究区域每月ET的最佳预测方法。在研究区域中,基于辐射的方法优于基于温度的方法。植被生长季节ET累积值表明,Jensen-Haise和Hamon方法在暖季和秋冬季生长期表现最佳,而春季生长期最佳预测方法仅包括Jensen-Haise方法。最佳替代方法和ET_(FPM)方法之间的差异表明,最佳替代方法在某些地区的估算可信度不高,因此在使用之前应考虑ET模型可预测性能的时空变化。     

Cold and hot water–extractable organic matter as indicators of litter decomposition in forest soils

Mild extractions were used as indicators of easily decomposable organic matter (OM). However, the chemical composition of extracted OM often remained unclear. Therefore, the composition of cold and hot water–extractable OM was investigated in the O horizons (Oi, Oe, Oa) of a 170 y old beech stand (Fagus sylvatica) in the Ore Mtns., SE Germany. To simulate litter decomposition, the O horizon samples were incubated for 1 week under defined conditions. Cold‐ and hot‐water extracts were analyzed and chemically characterized by pyrolysis–field ionization mass spectrometry (Py‐FIMS). The C and N concentrations were always lower in the cold‐(C: 2.69 to 3.95 g kg^–1; N: 0.14 to 0.29 g kg^–1) than in the hot‐water extracts (C: 13.77 to 15.51 g kg^–1; N: 0.34 to 0.83 g kg^–1). The C : N ratios of both extracts increased with increasing depth. Incubation increased the concentrations of C and N in all water extracts, while C : N ratios of extracts decreased. The molecular‐chemical composition of cold and hot water–extracted OM revealed distinct differences. Generally, cold water–extracted OM was thermally more stable than hot water–extracted OM. The mass spectra of the hot water–extracted organic matter revealed more intensive signals of carbohydrates, phenols, and lignin monomers. Additionally, the n‐C₂₈ fatty acid and the n‐C₃₈–to–n‐C₅₂ alkyl monoesters clearly distinguished the hot‐ from the cold‐water extract. A principle‐component analysis visualized (1) alterations in the molecular‐chemical composition of cold‐ and hot‐water extracts due to previous incubation of the solid O horizon samples and (2) a decomposition from the Oi to the Oh horizon. This provides evidence that the macromorphological litter decomposition was reflected by the chemical composition of water extracts, and that Py‐FIMS is well‐suited to explain at the molecular level why OM decomposability is correlated with water‐extracted C.     

Estimation of critical limit for zinc in rice soils

Abstract

Twenty surface soil samples were collected from Nainital Tarai (foothills of Himalya) where “Khaira”; disease (Zn deficiency of rice) is prevalent. Rice (Oryza sativa L. variety IR‐8) was grown in pots for 8 weeks after transplanting. Experiments were conducted to determine the suitability of five soil Zn extractants: dilute acid (HCl + H₂SO₄) mixture; DTPA‐(NH₄) ₂CO₃, pH 7.3; dithizone; NH₄OAc, pH 4.6; and 2N MgCl₂ to predict Zn deficiency. Critical values for soil available Zn were established for rice by the old and new Cate and Nelson procedures¹.

Zinc extracted from the soils with dithizone; NH₄OAc, pH 4.6; 0.2N MgCl₂. and DTPA‐(NH₄) ₂CO₃ pH 7.3 was significantly correlated with the uptake of Zn by the rice plants. The correlation between Zn extracted with the dilute acid (HCl + H₂SO₄) mixture and plant Zn was not statistically significant. The ex‐tractants which extracted greater quantities of Zn gave higher critical values and vice versa. It is concluded that all extracting solutions except the dilute acid (HCl + H₂SO₄) mixture were found to he suitable for predicting available Zn in rice soils of Tarai.     

Effect of nitrate and humic substances of different molecular size on kinetic parameters of nitrate uptake in wheat seedlings

The kinetic parameters of nitrate uptake (I_max, Km and C_min) were evaluated in young seedlings of Triticum durum L., cv. Appulo, exposed to nitrate and/or to soil‐extracted humic acids (HAs) of different molecular weight. The uptake was enhanced after induction at low levels of nitrate (50 μM KNO₃), while it was inhibited after induction at higher concentrations (2000 μM). The kinetic parameters of uptake were selectively influenced by pre‐treatment with HAs: total (TE) and, at a greater extent, low (LMS, < 3500 Da) molecular size humic fraction increased either the nitrate uptake rate (I_max) and the efficiency of the whole transport system (low Km and C_min), while an opposite result was evidenced in high molecular size (HMS, > 3500 Da)‐treated plants. An additive effect was shown when nitrate and humic substances were provided simultaneously: the uptake rate was enhanced in TE‐ and LMS‐treated plants, but was strongly delayed in HMS‐treated plants. Removal of nitrate and/or humic fractions de‐induced the system and NO₃^— uptake rate decreased. Exposure to HAs was not able to induce nitrate reductase activity in root and leaf tissues. Inhibitors of protein synthesis p‐fluorophenylalanine and cycloheximide reversed the positive effect of LMS fraction on nitrate uptake. This would support the hypothesis of a promoting effect of HAs on the molecular expression of proteins of the nitrate transport system.     

Ancient Runoff Harvesting Agriculture in the Hyper‐Arid Uvda Valley of Israel: An Agro‐Hydrological Assessment

Archaeological surveys conducted since the 1980s in the hyper‐arid Uvda Valley of southern Israel revealed extensive lands with runoff harvesting systems for growing barley and wheat during ancient times. Despite the impossibility of dating the earth and stone installations of terraces and limans due to their decay over time, a wealth of ancient agricultural tools located across the valley revealed inhabitation between the Late Neolithic, Chalcolithic, and Early Bronze ages. Also, cropping of barley in the valley's runoff harvesting systems took place until the 1950s by local Bedouin populations. The objective of this study was to assess the valley's agronomic potential under current climatic conditions. This was assessed by the analysis of precipitation (P) and reference evapotranspiration (ET_o) data for the rainy seasons during a 17‐year period between 1999–2000 and 2015–2016. Using the ET_o data and the single crop coefficient (K_c) for barley and wheat allowed the calculation of crop evapotranspiration (ET_c) and the seasonal soil water deficit (D). Hydrological assessment of the valley's basin allowed the calculation of potential runoff volumes which could be available for agricultural use on the valley floor. Overall, the results showed a potential for successful cereal cultivation only in one to two years during this 17‐year period. This revealed no viability for local agriculture under current climatic conditions. Insights from this study consist with other studies which indicated considerably drier climatic conditions at present compared to those in ancient times, and even compared to those in the mid‐twentieth century. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

高压微射流压力对大豆蛋白-大豆多糖体系功能性质的影响

为提升大豆分离蛋白（soy protein isolate,SPI）的功能性质,该文引入大豆可溶性多糖（soybean soluble polysaccharides,SSPS）,构建大豆分离蛋白-大豆可溶性多糖体系（SPI-SSPS）,研究动态高压微射流（dynamic high-pressure microfluidization,DHPM）处理对SPI-SSPS功能特性的影响。分别采用0,60,100,140和180 MPa的 DHPM压力处理SPI-SSPS,探究不同压力对SPI-SSPS起泡特性、乳化特性、溶解性、粒度分布和表面疏水性的影响。结果表明,DHPM处理能提高SPI的溶解性和起泡特性,且SSPS的存在能显著提高DHPM对SPI功能性质的改善效果（P<0.05）。100和60 MPa的DHPM处理能使SPI-SSPS呈现较高的起泡能力和起泡稳定性,分别为未处理样品的1.2和2.4倍。140 MPa的DHPM处理使SPI-SSPS溶解性较强,为未处理样品的1.8倍。然而,DHPM处理会显著降低SPI-SSPS的乳化特性、粒径和表面疏水性（P<0.05）。随着处理压力的增加,SPI-SSPS的粒度和表面疏水性逐渐降低,在180MPa的DHPM处理下SPI-SSPS具有较小的粒径和较低的荧光强度。综上所述,DHPM结合SSPS改性技术可用于改善SPI的功能性质（如溶解性、起泡性）,促进SPI在食品工业的应用。该文的研究结果可为SPI的功能性质改性提供参考。     

Short-term forecasting of daily crop evapotranspiration using the ‘Kc-ETo’ approach and public weather forecasts

Short-term forecasting of daily crop evapotranspiration (ET_c) is essential for real-time irrigation management. This study proposed a methodology to forecast short-term daily ET_c using the ‘K_c-ET_o’ approach and public weather forecasts. Daily reference evapotranspiration (ET_o) forecasts were obtained using a locally calibrated version of the Hargreaves-Samani (HS) model and temperature forecasts, while the crop coefficient (K_c) was estimated from observed daily ET_o and ET_c. The methodology was evaluated by comparing the daily ET_c forecasts with measured ET_c values from a field irrigation experiment during 2012–2014 in Yongkang Irrigation Experimental Station, China. The overall average of the statistical indices was in the range of 0.96–1.27 mm d^?1 for the mean absolute error (MAE), 1.53–2.55 mm d^?1 for the mean square error (MSE), 1.77–2.30 mm d^?1 for the normalized mean square error (NMSE), 27.5–29.4% for the mean relative error (MRE), 0.71–0.44 for the correlation coefficient (R) and 0.46–0.05 for the mean square error skill score (MSESS). Sources of error werewere K_c estion, temperature forecasts and HS model that does not consider wind speed and humidity, and.the largesourceof error is K_c determination, which suggested that care should be taken when forecasting ET_c with estimated K_c values in the study area.     

Forecasting daily reference evapotranspiration using the Blaney–Criddle model and temperature forecasts

Accurate daily reference evapotranspiration (ET_o) forecast is essential for real-time irrigation scheduling. An attempt was made to forecast ET_o using the Blaney–Criddle (BC) model and temperature forecasts in this study. Daily meteorological data for the period 2000–2014 at five stations in East China were collected to calibrate and validate the BC model against the FAO56 Penman–Monteith (FAO56-PM) model. Temperature forecasts up to 7 days’ lead time for 2012–2014 were input to the calibrated BC model to forecast ET_o. It is found that the performance of the BC model for ET_o forecast is further improved at all stations after monthly calibration. Average accuracy of forecasted ET_o (error within 1.5 mm d^?1) ranged from 82.7% to 89.3%, average values of mean absolute error (MAE) varied between 0.73 and 0.82 mm d^?1, average values of root mean square error (RMSE) ranged from 0.95 to 1.08 mm d^?1, and average values of the correlation coefficient (R) and concordance index (d) were more than 0.75 and 0.89, respectively. Furthermore, the error in ET_o forecast caused by error in temperature forecast is acceptable. The encouraging results indicate that the proposed method can be an alternative and effective solution for forecasting daily ET_o in East China.     

Influence of pH on Structure and Function of Amaranth (Amaranthus hypochondriacus) Protein Isolates

Structural and functional properties of two amaranth protein isolates as a function of pH were studied. Isolates, A9 and A11, were obtained by alkaline extraction at pH 9 and 11, respectively. Gel filtration chromatograms of A9 and A11 showed similar profiles. The A11 isolate contained mainly albumins and globulins, and a small proportion of globulin‐P aggregates, suggesting the presence of species with a higher degree of denaturation compared to A9. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) showed that A9 was characterized by two thermal transitions (65.8 and 98°C); A11 exhibited only a small endotherm (66.6°C) and a second, less defined one. DSC analysis of A9 at pH 2–4 did not show endotherms, but at pH 5, some protein structures were observed. A11 showed a greater degree of denaturation. FPLC results showed that the proteins in A9 are more folded and their conformation is closer to the native state than those in A11, which are more unfolded due to pH‐mediated denaturation, mainly in acid media. The surface hydrophobicity of the isolates in acid media was lower than in alkaline media. The fluorescence emission spectra of the isolates showed differences in acidic pH conditions. As expected, the highest solubility was at alkaline pH. The water‐holding capacity was similar for both isolates. The water‐imbibing capacity and speed of foaming was higher for A11 than for A9. In summary, intense pH treatment of amaranth isolates generated partial or total protein denaturation and differences in the functional properties.     

西北旱区石羊河流域作物耗水点面尺度转化方法的研究

基于DEM与GIS空间分析功能研究了石羊河流域主要农作物春小麦需水量ET_c的时空分异规律。根据8个气象站近50年气象资料,应用1998年FAO推荐的Penman-Monteith公式计算参考作物蒸发蒸腾量ET₀,由收集到的春小麦需水量试验资料获得多年平均作物系数K_c。近50年来流域上游的古浪、天祝春小麦全生育期ET_c呈微弱的增加趋势,中游的凉州区表现出极显著的减少趋势,其他站减少趋势不显著。确立了ET_c与海拔高度、纬度、坡向的多元回归关系,借助Arcview3.3、ArcGIS9.0与Visual Basic6.0软件实现了春小麦ET_c的空间尺度转换,并分析了石羊河流域25%、50%、75%三个不同水文年春小麦ET_c的空间变异情况。石羊河流域春小麦ET_c由山区向绿洲平原递增,多年平均值为270～591 mm。估计值与计算值相差在11.1%以内。     

石羊河流域气候变化对参考作物蒸发蒸腾量的影响

根据甘肃省气象局石羊河流域的6个气象站近50年的观测资料，应用1998年FAO最新推荐的Penman-Monteith公式计算了50年各月参考作物蒸发蒸腾量ET₀，分析了ET₀的月际变化和年际变化特征，除武威与肃南站ET₀呈逐年显著减少趋势外，其他各站的ET₀值均表现为逐年增加趋势，各个站ET₀ 20世纪90年代较80年代均有明显增加，说明气候变化对ET₀的影响较大；并分析了平均气温、平均最高气温、年日照时数、平均风速、平均相对湿度、年降水量、年蒸发量、海拔高度与ET₀的相关性，各站ET₀与平均相对湿度相关性最好；石羊河流域ET₀空间变化也较大，从山区到绿洲平原ET₀多年平均值呈递增趋势。     

Interactive effects of sodium chloride,sodium sulfate,calcium sulfate,and calcium chloride on snapbean growth,photosynthesis, and ion uptake

Excessive sodium (Na) accumulation in soil, which can be a problem for production agriculture in arid and semiarid regions, may be ameliorated by calcium (Ca). The mechanisms of Ca amelioration of Na stress in plants have received much more attention than has the effect of the anion of the Ca salt. Our objective was to determine the relative effects of the chloride (Cl^‐) and sulfate (SO₄ ^2‐) anions on Ca amelioration of Na stress. We exposed Phaseolus vulgaris L., cv. Contender seedlings growing in 1‐L styrofoam pots under greenhouse conditions to sodum chloride (NaCl) or sodium sulfate (Na₂SO₄) at concentrations of 0, 15, 30, 45, and 60 mmol/L combined with either 15 and 30 mmol/L of calcium sulfate (CaSO₄) or calcium chloride (CaCl₂). Plants in each styrofoam pot were irrigated with 300 mL of salt solution (leaching fraction = 0.25) every fourth day for four weeks. Increasing Na concentration decreased shoot dry weight, number and weight of pods, and number of nodules. The photo‐ synthesis rate was affected by all levels and types of Na salts. Calcium sulfate treatments ameliorated Na‐induced salinity in snapbeans more than did comparable CaCl₂ treatments. The thermodynamic activity of Ca, Na, and Cl was linearly related to the tissue content of each ion.