Determination of fire-access zones along road networks in fire-sensitive forests

Wild forest fires are one of the greatest environmental disasters affecting forest resources. Along the coastal zone of the Mediterranean region in Turkey,forested areas are classified as first-degree, fire-sensitive areas. Every year, thousands of hectares of forests have been destroyed in Turkey. In this study, fire-access zones were determined in the Mediterranean forests of Turkey, by utilizing geographic information systems(GIS) technology. The effective reach distance of fire hoses from both sides of roads was considered in order to delineate fireaccess zones. The effective reach distance can vary based on the technical capabilities and hydraulic capacity of fire trucks(minimum and maximum pressures on water pump);terrain structures(uphill, downhill and flat); and ground slope. These factors and their influences were studied in fire sensitive forest areas located in the eastern Mediterranean city of Kahramanmaras? in Turkey. First, terrain structures on both sides of the road network and groundslope classes were determined based on GIS data layers.Then, fire access zones were delineated according to water pressure data, terrain structures, and ground-slope classes.The results indicated that 69.30 % of the forested areas were within the fire-access zones, while the rest of the forest was out of reach the fire hoses. The accessible areas were also calculated for forested areas with different firesensitivity degrees. The accessible areas were 69.59, 69.96,and 67.16 % for the forested areas that are sensitive to fires at the first, second, and third degrees, respectively. This finding has implications for the monitoring and management of fire threats in areas outside of the reach distance.The outside areas should receive extra attention and monitoring during the fire season so that fires are detected ahead of time and management has sufficient time to react.Besides, new roads should be considered for these areas in order to access more lands in a shorter amount of time.     

Effects of management on coarse woody debris volume and composition in boreal forests in northern Sweden

Forest management practices have led to a reduction in the volume and a change in the composition of coarse woody debris (CWD) in many forest types. This study compared CWD volume and composition in reserves and two types of managed forest in the central boreal zone of Sweden. Ten areas were surveyed, each containing clear-cut, mature managed and old-growth stands, to determine the volume of standing and lying CWD in terms of species composition, decay class and size class. Volumes of CWD on clear-cuts and in mature managed forests were high compared with previous studies. Old-growth forests (72.6 m³ ha^?1) contained a greater volume of CWD than mature managed forests (23.3 m³ ha^?1) and clear-cuts (13.6 m³ ha^?1). Differences were greatest for the larger size classes and intermediate decay stages. Despite stand ages being up to 144 years, CWD volume and composition in managed forests was more similar to clear-cuts than to old-growth forests.     

EVALUATION OF SITE QUALITY FOR DAHURIAN LARCH FORESTS

INTRODUCTIONSitequalityisoneofthemostimpor-tantfactorsinfluencingtheproductivityofforeststands.Eva1uatingsitequalityisba-sictostudystandgrowthanddeviseman-agementtreatments.Basisofsitequalityissoil,whichhasacontrollinginfluenceontheforestproductivity-Soilpropertieschangeslowlyovertime,andsoilindexcanbeappliedincutover,deforested,andnonforestedareasinadditiontoareaswheretimberstandsarepresent.Underundisturbed,naturalconditions,somein-dicatorplantscomprisingthelesservegeta-tionmaybeassociat…     

Sustainability issues in Switzerland's forests

Basically there are three methods of regenerating a forest: sowing, planting, and natural regeneration. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, large forested areas of Switzerland were devastated by exploitation and grazing within the forest borders. A significant percentage of these areas was regenerated by planting seedlings. Thus, the Swiss landscape is the result of both land use and cultural history. Today practically no old virgin forests remain.

Forests in Switzerland are required to meet diverse expectations. They function as a means of protection against avalanches, rock falls, and landslides; a source of wood; a natural habitat for animals and plants; and areas for recreation and tourism. Forest management aims to ensure all of these functions on a long-term, sustainable basis. Several problems exist with regard to sustainability in Swiss forests. Data from the Swiss National Forest Inventory reveal that the age structure is off balance, i.e., that there are too many old and not enough young forests. In addition, only two-thirds of the potential Swiss timber yield is harvested, whereas wood is imported from foreign regions where no control over the type of forest management is possible. Without a reduction in the demand for and consumption of wood, this practice, over the long term, is not a sustainable management option. The matter also raises ethical questions, e.g., is it correct to practice nature conservation in your own country while at the same time using wood produced under unsustainable conditions elsewhere?

     

森林核污染问题研究

由核电站事故引发的森林核污染问题给当地的生存环境和林业发展带来了巨大的影响。如何有效地解决由森林核污染引发的问题成为当今环境保护和林业工作者需要面对的重要课题。文中以日本福岛县森林核污染问题为例,从放射性物质对福岛县森林及林产业的影响、日本政府针对福岛县森林核污染问题的举措以及森林核污染面临的诸多问题3个方面综述森林核污染问题的现状,并提出研究展望。研究表明,森林核污染面临着核污染问题长期化、除染工作局限性强、核污染物处理难等问题。有必要在政府的主导下,建立长期的监测调查体制,设定风险管理标准,再结合现地调查结果,开发森林核污染预测模型,结合模型预测结果制定下一步的森林核污染应对措施和方案。同时,应尽快建立核污染物处理机制以及在确保作业人员健康安全的情况下开展森林除染工作。     

Relative Quantitative Reference Approach for Naturalness Assessments of forests

Naturalness assessments are required for the evaluation of conservation schemes and programmes such as large-scale IUCN protected areas (National Parks) where nature restoration is a main management objective. More than 99% of the landscapes of Central Europe lost their reference sites for naturalness assessments with cutting of the last virgin forests. We present the Relative Quantitative Reference Approach for Naturalness Assessments (RANA), a method for overcoming the lack of virgin forests using a surrogate reference for forested landscapes. RANA combines heterogeneously scaled bio-important variables. We tested the RANA in the Bavarian Forest National Park, Germany, with an assumed naturalness gradient in different park zones. The results demonstrate that the RANA is a highly sensitive method for evaluating ecosystem responses to forest restoration and conservation.     

Estimating the quadratic mean diameters of fine woody debris in forests of the United States

Most fine woody debris (FWD) line-intersect sampling protocols and associated estimators require an approximation of the quadratic mean diameter (QMD) of each individual FWD size class. There is a lack of empirically derived QMDs by FWD size class and species/forest type across the U.S. The objective of this study is to evaluate a technique known as the graphical estimation (GE) method for estimating FWD QMDs across forests of the U.S. Results indicate tremendous inter- and intra-specific variation in small FWD diameters. In addition, GE model fitting results demonstrated a lack of substantial difference in FWD QMDs between common forest types. It is postulated that the mixing, fracturing, and decay of both tree and shrub downed woody debris in diverse forest types across the U.S. can homogenate FWD QMDs at state/national levels. In the absence of site-specific empirical measurement of FWD QMDs, it is suggested that a general national set of FWD QMDs derived from the GE method be adopted for large-scale FWD monitoring efforts.     

Building wood debris piles benefits avian seed dispersers in burned and logged Mediterranean pine forests

Salvage logging is a common practice carried out in burned forests worldwide, and intended to mitigate the economic losses caused by wildfires. Logging implies an additional disturbance occurring shortly after fire, although its ecological effects can be somewhat mitigated by leaving wood debris on site. The composition of the bird community and its capacity to provide ecosystem services such as seed dispersal of fleshy-fruited plants have been shown to be affected by postfire logging. We assessed the effects of the habitat structure resulting from different postfire management practices on the bird community, in three burned pine forests in Catalonia (western Mediterranean). For this purpose, we focused on the group of species that is responsible for seed dispersal, a process which takes place primarily during the winter in the Mediterranean basin. In addition, we assessed microhabitat selection by seed disperser birds in such environments in relation to management practices. Our results showed a significant, positive relationship between the density of wood debris piles and the abundance of seed disperser birds. Furthermore, such piles were the preferred microhabitat of these species. This reveals an important effect of forest management on seed disperser birds, which is likely to affect the dynamics of bird-dependent seed dispersal. Thus, building wood debris piles can be a useful practice for the conservation of both the species and their ecosystem services, while also being compatible with timber harvesting.     

Stocks and dynamics of soil organic carbon and coarse woody debris in three managed and unmanaged temperate forests

The effect of forest conservation on the organic carbon (C) stock of temperate forest soils is hardly investigated. Coarse woody debris (CWD) represents an important C reservoir in unmanaged forests and potential source of C input to soils. Here, we compared aboveground CWD and soil C stocks at the stand level of three unmanaged and three adjacent managed forests in different geological and climatic regions of Bavaria, Germany. CWD accumulated over 40–100 years and yielded C stocks of 11 Mg C ha^?1 in the unmanaged spruce forest and 23 and 30 Mg C ha^?1 in the two unmanaged beech–oak forests. C stocks of the organic layer were smaller in the beech–oak forests (8 and 19 Mg C ha^?1) and greater in the spruce forest (36 Mg C ha^?1) than the C stock of CWD. Elevated aboveground CWD stocks did not coincide with greater C stocks in the organic layers and the mineral soils of the unmanaged forests. However, radiocarbon signatures of the O _e and O _a horizons differed among unmanaged and managed beech–oak forests. We attributed these differences to partly faster turnover of organic C, stimulated by greater CWD input in the unmanaged forest. Alternatively, the slower turnover of organic C in the managed forests resulted from lower litter quality following thinning or different tree species composition. Radiocarbon signatures of water-extractable dissolved organic carbon (DOC) from the top mineral soils point to CWD as potent DOC source. Our results suggest that 40–100 years of forest protection is too short to generate significant changes in C stocks and radiocarbon signatures of forest soils at the stand level.     

Understory succession in post-agricultural oak forests: Habitat fragmentation affects forest specialists and generalists differently

The herbaceous understory forms the richest stratum in temperate broadleaved forests in terms of plant diversity. Understanding the process of understory succession is thus of critical importance for the development of management guidelines for biodiversity restoration in post-agricultural plantation forests.We studied effects of stand age, forest fragmentation, and soil and canopy conditions on species richness and abundance of four species groups in the understory of post-arable oak plantations in southern Sweden: herbaceous forest specialists, habitat generalists and open-land species, and woody species.The group of forest specialists may approach the richness of continuously forested sites after 60-80 years in non-fragmented plantations, but many forest species were sensitive to habitat fragmentation. Open-land species richness decreased during succession, while the richness of woody species and of generalists remained stable, and was not affected by fragmentation. Abundance of generalists gradually decreased in non-fragmented plantations, probably due to competition from colonizing forest specialists. Soil pH in post-arable stands remained consistently higher than in continuously forested stands, which maintained differences in species composition. The development of a shrub layer seemed to imply a competitive advantage for forest specialists compared to generalist species.For successful recovery of a rich understory, we suggest that post-arable plantations should be established on loamy soils of intermediate to high pH proximate to older forest with source populations, and that a continuous overstory canopy cover of 70-80% is maintained by regular light thinnings and promotion of a shrub layer.     

气候对森林粗木质残体贮量的影响

森林中的粗木质残体（CWD）是生物圈与土壤圈养分配置的中介和纽带,CWD的贮量影响森林中元素的循环。文中通过比较世界各气候带森林系统中CWD的贮量,总结了造成各气候带森林中CWD贮量差异的气候因素。各气候带不同的气温、降水以及气温与降水的时间搭配关系,通过影响森林木材生产力、活立木死亡量及CWD的分解速率,进而影响CWD在林内的贮量。热带雨林、季雨林中CWD的平均贮量最低,仅为19.96～27.71 t/hm2;温带海洋性气候森林中CWD的平均贮量高达205.8～213.2 t/hm2。在全球变暖的大背景下,贮存在CWD中的C元素含量关乎着大气中CO₂含量,故应加强世界各气候带森林中CWD贮量格局的长期监测和系统调研。     

Post-windthrow management in protection forests of the Swiss Alps

The two storms Vivian (1990) and Lothar (1999) left an area of roughly 9000 ha of fully damaged protection forests in Swiss mountain regions. Given this huge dimension, questions arose on how to manage these areas to keep the protection gap, i.e. the time period with reduced overall protection against natural hazards, short. Quantifications are presented for the stability of lying logs left in place, the frequency of post-disturbance mass movements, and the tree regeneration in windthrow areas. The average height above ground of unsalvaged lying logs decreased from 2.1 m shortly after disturbance to 0.8 m 20 years later. In the period 1990–2014, the number of avalanches in windthrow areas was markedly small, and annual rates of shallow landslides and debris flows in windthrow areas did not differ from rates in comparable undamaged forested areas. Regeneration density rarely exceeded 4000 stems ha^?1 20 years post-windthrow at elevations above 1200–1500 m a.s.l. Mean height of tallest trees reached 5.6 m in areas that were cleared and 6.5 m in those left unsalvaged. Trees planted post-windthrow were 1.0–2.4 m taller than naturally regenerated ones. Practitioners rated the protective effect to be acceptable 24 years post-disturbance in only 5 out from 16 observed windthrow areas (31%), with planting trees as the main cause of success. We conclude that in protection forests the regeneration speed after disturbance rarely meets practitioner’s expectations in terms of both stem density and stand structure. However, leaving woody debris from wind disturbance in place proved to replace protective effects for an astonishingly long time. An intensive management with salvage logging, planting and even technical constructions seems therefore only inevitable on windthrown areas where risks seem too high based on hazard, damage potential and possible spread of bark beetles to nearby protection forests. A management alternative applicable to many other cases of windthrown protection forests is to plant trees between lying stems.     

国道网路域森林覆盖时空变化及驱动力分析

基于2000—2017年森林变化数据集、气象数据和社会经济数据,采用邻域分析、统计分析和多元逻辑回归分析对我国国道网路域森林植被变化特征及其驱动力机制进行了系统地分析。结果表明:空间上,我国国道路域森林覆盖具有显著的随着与道路距离增大逐渐减小的净丧失的梯度变化特征,国道的影响域为道路两侧0~2700 m范围,具体表现为:恢复率、丧失率和总变化率在影响域内随距离增大而增大,在影响域外随距离增大而减小,净丧失率在影响域内、外均随距离增大而减小;国道影响域森林丧失率有明显的省市自治区分区差异特点,华东和华南地区高于全国平均,华北、华中、西南、西北和东北地区低于全国平均;同属一个分区的不同省份国道影响域森林丧失率高低也有较大差异,各省份国道影响域森林丧失率梯度变化规律显著性程度不同。时间上,近17 a,我国国道影响域森林丧失总体呈波动上升趋势,尤其在2015年后丧失率出现较大增长;而华北、华中、东北地区国道影响域森林丧失率在2008年后出现逐年波动下降趋势。气象水文条件和本底森林覆盖度是造成国道影响域森林丧失差异的主要原因,地形地理、气象水文、人类活动等因素对国道影响域森林丧失影响的协同作用与距离因素无明显相关性。     

Distribution and nest site selection of red-shouldered hawks (Buteo lineatus) in forests of northeastern Wisconsin (USA)

Red-shouldered hawks (Buteo lineatus) are threatened in Wisconsin and when nest sites are found during the cruising or marking stage of timber harvesting, the harvest is altered to accommodate the hawks. If nest site locations are known before initiation of timber harvest, foresters can employ a proactive approach to manage red-shouldered hawks while maintaining timber production. We searched for red-shouldered hawks nest sites on Marinette County Forest (MCF) which encompasses 94,000 ha in northeastern Wisconsin and is the second largest county forest in the state. We used a comparative modeling approach to evaluate distribution and habitat relationships of red-shouldered hawk nest sites in relation to a suite of environmental variables in MCF. Models were used to develop forest management recommendations for red-shouldered hawks in Wisconsin. During the spring of 2006 and 2007, we broadcasted conspecific calls to survey 1121 calling stations along forest roads and trails. We located 20 and 25 active nesting territories in 2006 and 2007, respectively (11 of which were active in both years). To understand nest site selection, we measured 22 habitat variables within 0.04-ha plots at active nest sites (n = 34) and at stratified random sites (n = 61). Logistic regression with information-theoretic model selection identified a model including greater tree species richness and closeness to forested wetland as the best-approximating model. Variable selection with Discriminant Function Analysis (DFA) indicated that nest selection was best explained by greater number of tree species, closer distance to forested wetlands, greater volume of downed woody debris, fewer small sawlogs, and increased proximity to streams. Univariate comparisons identified four of the five aforementioned variables in the DFA model as significant. Red-shouldered hawks are likely more common in Wisconsin than their state status suggests. Forest management for red-shouldered hawk nest sites should focus on increasing tree species richness, increasing down woody debris volume, and protecting forested wetlands. These recommendations may assist property managers to locate and plan for continued persistence of this species on MCF.     

A comparison of impacts from silviculture practices and North American beaver invasion on stream benthic macroinvertebrate community structure and function in Nothofagus forests of Tierra del Fuego

The sub-Antarctic biome of South America is the world's southernmost forested ecosystem and one of the last remaining wilderness areas on the planet. Nonetheless, the region confronts various anthropogenic environmental impacts, such as the invasive North American beaver (Castor canadensis) and timber harvesting, particularly in stands of Nothofagus pumilio. Both of these disturbances can affect terrestrial and aquatic systems. To understand the influence and relative importance of these disturbances on sub-Antarctic watersheds, we characterized in-stream and riparian habitat conditions (pH, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, temperature, stream size, distance to riparian forest, bank slope, substrate heterogeneity, benthic organic matter) and benthic macroinvertebrate community structure (density, richness, diversity, evenness) and function (biomass, functional feeding group percent) in 19 streams on Tierra del Fuego Island. To explain the effects of beaver invasion and timber harvesting, we compared these physical and biotic variables among four habitat types: (a) beaver meadows, (b) shelterwood cut harvested areas without forested riparian zones, (c) variable retention harvested areas with riparian buffers, and (d) unmanaged old-growth primary forests. Most habitat variables were similar at all sites, except for dissolved oxygen (significantly higher in streams from old-growth primary forests). Benthic communities in beaver meadows had significantly lower diversity, compared to streams of unmanaged old-growth primary forests, and managed sites presented intermediate values between the two. Functionally, the benthic community in beaver meadows displayed a reduction of all functional feeding groups except collector-gatherers; again variable retention harvested areas with riparian buffers were similar to unmanaged old-growth primary forest streams, while shelterwood cut harvested areas occupied an intermediate position. These results indicated that current forestry practices that include both variable retention and legally mandated riparian forested buffers may be effective in mitigating impacts on stream benthic communities. Finally, these data demonstrated that C. canadensis invasion was a relatively larger impact on these streams than well-managed forestry practices.     

Modelling coarse woody debris dynamics in even-aged Scots pine forests

Coarse woody debris (CWD) has become an important component in the study of forest ecosystems, being a key factor in the nutrient cycle as well as a habitat for many species. CWD dynamics varies greatly from primeval to managed forests. To assess the CWD dynamics, a chronosequence trial was established in two Scots pine forests in the Central mountain range in Spain. Although, the shelterwood system has been applied in both forests, one has received more intensive silviculture, whereas in the other, regeneration has been much more gradual and the thinning regime has not been so intensive. In order to inventory CWD, five decay classes and four categories according to size and CWD type (stumps and fallen logs or branches) were defined. The volume of branches and logs (estimated from length and mean diameter) and the number of stumps by size class and decay class are used to characterise the CWD. The most notable differences between the two silvicultural systems can be appreciated in the graph as peaks for temporary distribution of larger logs and stumps when intensive silviculture is applied. The CWD observed in the forests studied is mainly produced by logging. The maximum volume of logs and branches above 5 cm in diameter is 43.25 m³/ha after regeneration felling in the first forest, whereas in the other, a maximum of 16.30 m³/ha is reached at 60 years, just after thinning. Large stumps (diameter equal or greater than 30 cm) make up an important part of CWD biomass in these forests just after the regeneration felling. A model was developed to predict the changes in CWD quantity and quality distribution over time as well as predicting the effect of different silviculture options on CWD dynamics. The model integrates two different processes: the CWD inputs (which may be continuous or instant), and the decay process, modelled through a Richards–Chapman function. The average lifetime of CWD obtained ranges from 30 years for stumps over 30 cm in diameter to 8 years for logs with a diameter less than 10 cm.     

Understory vegetation of boreal tree plantations: Differences in relation to previous land use and natural forests

The aim of this study was to evaluate if and how the previous land use (here: agriculture versus forest) has influenced the floristic composition now observed in the understory of jack pine plantations of Abitibi-Temiscamingue (North-Eastern Canada). Floristic inventories were conducted in jack pine plantations which had been established on forest sites after logging and on sites previously utilized for agriculture. These were compared to one another and to inventories conducted in natural forests and on agricultural sites which had not (not yet) been planted with trees (old fields). The vegetation community composition of the sites is analysed using several multivariate techniques. Results show that the flora of plantations on old agricultural fields is markedly different than that of plantations established on sites which were previously forested and that the two types of plantation are unlikely to become floristically the same before the anticipated harvest time. Comparing old and young plantations and old fields in light of natural forests sites, we show that the previous land-use is a key determinant of future compositional differences in plantations. This must be considered when we evaluate the impact of establishing plantations on sites with different land-use histories.     

对中国森林区划的新探讨

以往对中国森林的区划,主要是从林区管理和经营的角度来考虑的。本文对此进行了新的探索,即从森林生态系统的角度来对中国森林进行区划,提出了依照基带地带性理论来区划中国森林。以气候区带为大框架,强调森林的植被型、植被群系组以及包括野生动植物种在内的森林生态系统的完整性而不受行政区域的割裂影响。提出了气候区域下的森林区划7个分区的方案,这种区划方案不仅是对中国森林区划的一种新的探索,也对当前我国森林生态系统自然保护区体系的建设和管理有着实际的指导意义。     

The effects of different types of management,functions, and characteristics of stands in Polish forests on the amount of coarse woody debris

In the modern forestry paradigm, many factors influence the amount of coarse woody debris (CWD). The present paper analyzes the effects of both local (national) programs (special functions of forests) and European programs (Natura 2000 sites), as well as the individual characteristics of forest stands. The study was conducted on 2,752 sampling plots distributed over an area of about 17,500 ha and located in lowland stands having a species composition typical of large areas in central Europe. Natura 2000 areas contained significantly more CWD (8.4 m³/ha) than areas not covered by the program (4.8 m³/ha). However, this is due to the fact that Natura 2000 sites involve well-preserved forest areas, such as nature reserves (26.6 m³/ha). In the managed forests that have been covered by the Natura 2000 program over the past several years, the volume of CWD has not increased. Forests with ecological and social functions differed slightly in the amount of CWD. More CWD occurred in protected animal areas (8.7 m³/ha) than in stands damaged by industry (3.9 m³/ha). Intermediate CWD levels were found in water-protection forests and in forests located around cities and military facilities. In managed forests, the lowest CWD volume was observed in middle-aged stands. The species composition of the stand had little effect on the volume of CWD. Only stands with a predominance of ash and alder had higher CWD levels (13.5 m³/ha). More CWD was found in stands whose species composition did not represent the potential site quality (6.4 m³/ha) than in habitats with the optimum species composition (3.8 m³/ha). CWD volume should be systematically increased taking into consideration local natural conditions. Such efforts should be focused on particularly valuable regions, and especially on Natura 2000 sites, where the threshold values reported from other European forests should be reached. Leaving some trees to die naturally and retaining reasonable amounts of such trees ought to be incorporated into CWD management practice in Poland.