Public Wildlife Management on Private Lands: Reciprocity,Population Status,and Stakeholders’ Normative Beliefs

Wildlife agencies balance the effectiveness of management with public acceptability. Past research has demonstrated stakeholders’ normative beliefs regarding management are influenced by the severity of the human-wildlife interaction, and the harshness of human response. Such beliefs may be more complex when public and private interests intertwine. In Montana, concerns about Brucellosis spreading from wild elk to domestic livestock prompted agencies to consider new management actions on private lands. We investigated how normative beliefs within stakeholder groups related to reciprocity between landowners and the public, and elk population status, using a linear mixed-effects analysis of mail survey responses. Proposed actions were considerably more acceptable in scenarios where landowners reciprocated with public hunting access, and where elk populations were abundant. Acceptability of lethal actions varied substantially across scenarios, indicating a need for a nuanced understanding of how stakeholders perceive different wildlife control measures, especially in private land contexts.     

Landowner Perceptions of Legal Liability for Using Prescribed Fire in the Southern Plains,United States

Suppression of fire in the Southern Plains has led to proliferation of woody plants and fuel load accumulation that spurs wildfires. These effects have led to calls for widespread application of prescribed fire to reduce fuel loads, but there is substantial landowner resistance to the use of this land management tool. Here we explore factors that affect perceptions of landowners in the Southern Plains about prescribed fire liability and their willingness to apply this land management tool. This region was selected for the study because of the preponderance of private landholdings and widespread woody plant encroachment. The study used a mail survey of 1 853 landowners in 16 counties in Texas and Oklahoma, resulting in a data set from 680 respondents (37% useable response rate). Logistic regression models were developed to test three hypotheses relating to the likelihood that a landowner will apply prescribed fire. The study corroborated that landowners who perceived higher levels of fire-related legal liability were less likely to apply prescribed fire on their land or assist with its application on other properties. In addition, burn bans were found to inhibit landowner willingness to apply fire during periods that result in higher woody plant mortality. Oklahoma respondents, landowners who believed prescribed fire to be an affordable woody plant management tool, and members of prescribed burning associations (PBAs) were more likely to use prescribed fire. These results have important implications for policies aimed at overcoming resistance to the use of prescribed fire to curb woody plant encroachment and reduce fuel load accumulation. Specifically, language in state statutes pertaining to prescribed fire should be modified to reduce landowner concerns over legal liability; PBAs should be established more widely; and public cost-sharing funds for woody plant management should prioritize prescribed fire.     

A Hedonic Analysis of Big Game Hunting Club Dues in Georgia,USA

Hunting lease revenue can be a reliable supplemental income for forest landowners. Although studies have examined factors influencing per acre lease rates, little is known about how various characteristics are capitalized in hunting club dues. The objective of this study was to conduct a hedonic analysis of big game hunting club dues in Georgia, USA using a variety of club-, site-, and location-specific characteristics. To accomplish this objective, multivariate regression analysis was applied to explain variation in hunters’ self-reported big game hunting club dues in 2012. Implicit price was then calculated for each significant covariate. Club size, presence of food plots, and game quality had positive effects on club dues, whereas membership number had a negative effect. These results should be useful for landowners and club lease managers interested in enhancing the marketability of their hunting sites and understanding the effect of management actions.     

Liability and Prescribed Fire: Perception and Reality

Changing climate and fuel accumulation are increasing wildfire risks across the western United States. This has led to calls for fire management reform, including the systematic use of prescribed fire. Although use of prescribed fire by private landowners in the southern Great Plains has increased during the past 30 yr, studies have determined that liability concerns are a major reason why many landowners do not use or promote the use of prescribed fire. Generally, perceptions of prescribed fire ? related liability are based on concerns over legal repercussions for escaped fire. This paper reviews the history and current legal liability standards used in the United States for prescribed fire, it examines how perceived and acceptable risk decisions about engagement in prescribed burning and other activities differ, and it presents unanticipated outcomes in two cases of prescribed fire insurance aimed at promoting the use of prescribed fire. We demonstrate that the empirical risk of liability from escaped fires is minimal (< 1%) and that other underlying factors may be leading to landowners’ exaggerated concerns of risk of liability when applying prescribed fire. We conclude that providing liability insurance may not be the most effective approach for increasing the use of prescribed fire by private landowners. Clearly differentiating the risks of applying prescribed fire from those of catastrophic wildfire damages, changing state statutes to reduce legal liability for escaped fire, and expanding landowner membership in prescribed burn associations may be more effective alternatives for attaining this goal. Fear of liability is a major deterrent to the use of prescribed fire; however, an evaluation of the risks from escaped fire does not support perceptions that using prescribed fire as a land management tool is risky. Prescribed burning associations and agencies that support land management improvement have an important role to play in spreading this message.     

Perceptions of Texas Landowners Regarding Fire and Its Use

Growing recognition that periodic fire is critical for maintaining the health of many rangeland ecosystems and concerns over more frequent catastrophic wildfires have focused attention on prescribed fire as an ecosystem restoration and fuel management tool. In states such as Texas, where most land is privately owned, the level of success of outreach activities aimed at expanding the adoption of specific management practices is influenced by the extent to which landowners’ perceptions, interests, and concerns regarding such practices are addressed. This is particularly important for prescribed fire, which has been perceived by many landowners to be a dangerous or wasteful practice. Here we report the results of a mail survey of 185 members of the Edwards Plateau Prescribed Burn Association (EPPBA) and a random sample of 600 nonmember rural landowners in four counties in the Edwards Plateau and two counties in the Rolling Plains ecoregions of Texas. The overall response rate was 46.6%. Primary reasons respondents did not apply fire on their land were insufficient resources, legal concerns, and lack of assistance with burn plan development. EPPBA members had more positive attitudes than nonmembers about the ecological role of fire and the use of prescribed fire. Our study suggests that adoption of prescribed burning as an integral part of land management plans by private landowners could be expanded by forming new prescribed burning associations. The EPPBA model for such associations provides learning opportunities that are consistent with adult learning and innovation adoption principles. It facilitates fire safety training, reduces concerns over legal liability associated with fire ignition, and enhances access to shared fire management equipment and labor on burn days. The two-tiered structure of the EPPBA with some form of state-level representation appears to be an efficient organizational structure for these associations.     

Perceptions of Landowners Concerning Conservation,Grazing, Fire,and Eastern Redcedar Management in Tallgrass Prairie

Successful prairie restoration will depend in part on convincing private landowners with agricultural and recreational use goals to implement appropriate rangeland management practices, such as prescribed burning and cattle grazing, to control invasive species and encroachment of woody plants. However, landowners have been slow to adopt appropriate practices in the US Midwest. The purpose of this study was to explore attitudes and behaviors of private landowners toward prescribed burning and moderate stocking as rangeland management tools. A survey was mailed to 193 landowners (response rate 51%) in the Grand River Grasslands region of southern Iowa and northern Missouri. While 68% of landowners viewed grazing as a legitimate land management tool, only half of landowners thought of fire as a legitimate tool. Over 75% of respondents believed that the increase in eastern redcedar and other trees in grasslands was a problem, with 44% considering it a major problem. Although 84% of landowners said that they had taken action to control eastern redcedar, only 25% had participated in a prescribed burn. Income from agriculture and recreational goals were negatively and significantly correlated (-0.252, P = 0.035). While holding recreational goals constant in the analysis, landowners reporting income from agriculture goals as very or extremely important were negatively and significantly associated with reporting environment and grassland factors as very or extremely important. Adoption of prescribed burning by private landowners might be more widespread if proponents focus on the effectiveness of fire for controlling eastern redcedar, which is viewed as a problem by most landowners in the region. Intervention efforts must include landowners with different goals as part of the promotion and educational process.     

Bases of Support Differ for Deer Reduction Versus Behavior Change Options to Manage Deer Impacts

Research on urban deer management has used bivariate analysis of public support for options. Multiple regression analyses tested predictors of support for deer reduction options (hunting; contraception; removal; no action or “letting nature take its course”) and willingness to change one's own behavior (self-protection; yard re-planting; planting native plants). Deer reduction support correlated with wanting fewer deer and opinions about hunting's and no-action's effects; behavior-change support correlated with distrust of government, general environmental attitudes, and beliefs about deer impacts. Variations occurred for specific options (e.g., belief in no action increased with beliefs that nature lacked negative effects and reduced deer numbers; seeing global extinction as a problem and political liberalism favored native-species planting). Controlling for other variables, women supported hunting more and no action less than men, reversing prior bivariate findings. Multivariate analysis thus showed hitherto unobserved differences in the basis of support for deer reduction versus behavior change.     

Management of bovine tuberculosis in Michigan wildlife: current status and near term prospects

Surveillance and control activities for bovine tuberculosis (bTB) in free-ranging Michigan white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) have now been underway for over a decade. Significant progress has been made, lowering apparent prevalence in deer in the core area by >60%, primarily via reduction of deer densities through hunting, and restrictions on public feeding and baiting of deer. These broad strategies of the Michigan Department of Natural Resources (MDNR), implemented with the cooperation of Michigan deer hunters, halved the deer population in the bTB endemic area. However, as hunters see fewer deer, their willingness to sustain aggressive harvests has waned, and public resentment of control measures has grown. During the past four years, apparent prevalence in core area deer has held approximately steady just below 2%. After bottoming out in 2004 at an estimated 10-12 deer/km(2), deer numbers have since rebounded by ～ 30%. Public compliance with baiting and feeding restrictions has been variable. In general, hunters in the core area do not perceive bTB as a problem, in spite of 13 years of MDNR outreach. To date, MDNR has expended more than US$23 million on TB-related activities. Of late, a substantial portion of that funding has been diverted to support other programs which have suffered from budget shortfalls. Livestock herd breakdowns continue to occur sporadically, averaging 3-4 per year 2005 to present. In total, 46 cattle and 4 captive deer herds have been diagnosed bTB positive statewide, the majority yielding only 1 positive animal. Five cattle herds were twice infected, one thrice. Michigan Department of Agriculture (MDA) policy emphasis has shifted towards obtaining producer support for wildlife risk mitigation and farm biosecurity. Funding has proven a limiting factor, with the majority of the US$63 million spent to date devoted to whole herd testing. Nevertheless, some initiatives justify cautious optimism. Promising research to support eventual vaccination of wild deer continues. Some hunters and landowners have begun to recognize the costs of high deer densities and supplemental feeding. A peninsula-wide ban on baiting and feeding was enacted. Some cattle producers, recognizing their precarious circumstances, have begun work to change long-held prevailing opinions among their peers about farm biosecurity. Yet formidable challenges remain, and evidence suggests that eradication of bTB, if it can be achieved, will take decades, and will require greater public and political resolve than has been demonstrated thus far.     

How Wildlife Management Agencies and Hunting Organizations Frame Ethical Hunting in the United States

Given that many wildlife management agencies consider hunting to be central to wildlife conservation, a growing body of research describes ethical hunting using characterization framing (created by outsiders). This article describes an identity frame (created by insiders) of ethical hunting in the United States, based on analysis of hunter education manuals and official statements of hunting nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). Similar themes permeated texts from both sources (e.g., obeying law, fair chase). NGOs, however, placed significantly more emphasis on being skilled (15% vs. 6%) and being motivated by experiencing nature (10% vs. 2%), whereas government agencies placed significantly more emphasis on respecting landowners (28% vs. 15%). Agencies may frame ethical hunting as more socially interdependent and rule abiding because they perceive a need to prioritize government authority (law) and property owner interests. These findings highlight a need for identity frames focusing on how hunting impacts biodiversity and humane treatment of animals.     

Understanding Peer Influence in Hunter Harvest Decisions Using Social Network Theory and Analysis

State wildlife agencies are increasingly seeking the advice and cooperation of wildlife stakeholders, including that of private hunting cooperatives. While there is some evidence that the interests and actions of private deer cooperatives align with those of state wildlife agencies, little is known about the internal social mechanisms that explain this. Social network theory and analysis can shed some light on these internal group dynamics. This article used egocentric network analysis to examine the effect of peer groups on the antlerless harvest decisions of individuals in private deer cooperatives. Our primary result was that the members of one’s egocentric network influence the harvest behavior of that individual, providing some evidence for the potential of social network theory and analysis to understand and improve on the strategies used to address a variety of resource-related problems in wildlife management and conservation.     

New Rangeland Residents in Wyoming? A Survey of Exurban Landowners

Rapid conversion of rural land to exurban development and the ensuing impacts on natural resources have been well-documented, but information about exurban landowners is lacking. To address this knowledge gap, we surveyed exurban landowners in six Wyoming counties and documented demographic characteristics, motivations, knowledge, and attitudes about natural resources and land management. The overall response rate was 55.6%. Generally, respondents were of retirement age, had lived in Wyoming for about 13 yr, and were raised in areas with a population < 10 000. Wyoming respondents lived in exurbia for the lifestyle and aesthetic values and did not expect economic gains from their property. Most respondents had knowledge about, and interest in, invasive species, water quality, landscaping, and gardening. More than half of respondents (54%) had never looked for information regarding land management. Information from this study can be used to strengthen the development and delivery of educational programs. Programs that focus on water quality or weed control likely will appeal to more exurban landowners than those that focus solely on grazing management. Our findings provide an accurate characterization of this audience and their motivations and attitudes regarding land management, and suggest that using a multipronged approach for outreach efforts, which includes both cost- and time-efficient ways to conduct important land management practices, might increase participation in educational programs.     

Motivations of Female Black Hills Deer Hunters

State fish and wildlife agencies are particularly interested in attracting female participation because of the potential to offset declining participation in hunting. Understanding female hunters’ motivations will be critical for designing effective recruitment and retention programs for women hunters. Although female participation in hunting is increasing, males still outnumber females by about tenfold. Gender differences in deer hunters were explored by comparing ratings of eight motivations (social, nature, excitement, meat, challenge, trophy, extra hunting opportunity, and solitude). Hunter types were defined by hunters’ selection of the most important motivation for why they like Black Hills deer hunting. Overall, females and males were relatively similar in their ratings of the eight motivations, and we found 85% gender similarity in the selection of the most important motivation. Women were slightly more motivated by the food aspect of the hunt while men placed slightly more value on the hunt as a sporting activity.     

Managing the wildlife reservoir of Mycobacterium bovis: the Michigan, USA, experience

Historical, social and economic factors combined to provide a focus where bovine tuberculosis has become established in free-ranging wildlife in northeastern lower Michigan. White-tailed deer, the primary reservoir and maintenance host of tuberculosis, are highly valued by the public, and particularly hunters, for cultural and economic reasons. Since 1995, significant progress has been made in defining and reducing the reservoir of tuberculosis in deer. As yet, no other wildlife species has been shown to play an epidemiologically important role in the disease cycle. The importance of deer and deer hunting to Michigan has uniquely shaped tuberculosis control policies, and poses ongoing challenges as wildlife managers strive to maintain momentum for broad control strategies, and develop focused strategies that are publicly acceptable. Even if momentum and funding can be maintained, tuberculosis will likely continue to be present for a decade or longer. Thus, cattle producers waiting for tuberculosis to be eradicated from wildlife to eliminate risks to their herds and markets face disappointment for the foreseeable future. Such unrealistic expectations also place Michigan's federal tuberculosis accreditation status at perpetual risk. Accredited free status is unlikely to be regained without accompanying changes in cattle management. In Michigan, management of tuberculosis has clearly demonstrated that social issues and public approval are likely to be the critical limiting factors in control.     

The importance of localized culling in stabilizing chronic wasting disease prevalence in white-tailed deer populations

Strategies to contain the spread of disease often are developed with incomplete knowledge of the possible outcomes but are intended to minimize the risks associated with delaying control. Culling of game species by government agencies is one approach to control disease in wild populations but is unpopular with hunters and wildlife enthusiasts, politically unpalatable, and erodes public support for agencies responsible for wildlife management. We addressed the functional differences between hunting and government culling programs for managing chronic wasting disease (CWD) in white-tailed deer by comparing prevalence over a 10-year period in Illinois and Wisconsin. When both Illinois and Wisconsin were actively culling from 2003 – 2007, there were no statistical differences between state CWD prevalence estimates. Wisconsin government culling concluded in 2007 and average prevalence over the next five years was 3.09 ± 1.13% with an average annual increase of 0.63%. During that same time period, Illinois continued government culling and there was no change in prevalence throughout Illinois. Despite its unpopularity among hunters, localized culling is a disease management strategy that can maintain low disease prevalence while minimizing impacts on recreational deer harvest.     

Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in wild boar and deer in Brandenburg,Germany

Consumption of game in Germany has increased during the past 10 years. Wild boar (Sus scrofa), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and red deer (Cervus elaphus) are the most frequently hunted and consumed game animals in Germany, yet information on the occurrence of zoonotic pathogens in these animal species is scarce. To better estimate the public health risk emanating from handling and consumption of game, this study investigated seroprevalences of Toxoplasma gondii in game hunted in the German federal state of Brandenburg during two hunting seasons from 2017 to 2019. Toxoplasma gondii‐specific antibodies were detected in 24.4% (44/180, 95% CI: 18.4%–31.4%) of wild boar, 12.8% (16/125, 95% CI: 7.5%–20%) of roe deer and 6.4% (3/47, 95% CI: 1.3%–17.5%) of red deer using a commercial ELISA kit. Seroprevalences were similar in the two hunting seasons. Correlation between sex and seropositivity could not be observed. A rise in seroprevalence was seen with increasing age in all studied game species. Observed seroprevalences suggest that T. gondii is endemic in the sylvatic environment in the German federal state of Brandenburg and imply that game could represent a relevant source for human T. gondii infection.     

Wildlife Value Orientations: A Quantitative Study of the General Public in Denmark

This article examined value orientations toward wildlife among the adult general Danish public in relation to age, sex, past and present residence, education, and income, using a U.S. survey instrument on Wildlife Value Orientations (WVO). The study used an Internet-based questionnaire sent to a representative sample of the Danish public in 2012 (n = 1,001). As predicted, there was a predominance of mutualists and a large segment of distanced individuals. Sex was the only variable shown to have a pronounced effect on WVO, with females being more mutualist-oriented than males. Information about the general public’s WVO can be used to check against the orientation of other specific groups such as landowners and hunters. It can also prove useful for developing specific hunting and wildlife policies such as certification of wildlife managers.     

Integrating Constraints to the Theory of Planned Behavior in Predicting Deer Hunting Participation

This article predicted deer hunting behavior using the theory of planned behavior (TPB) and constraint-integrated TPB models. The data were collected using a two-staged mail back survey with Oregon hunters in 2008–2009. Structural equation modeling showed that TPB explained 51% variance in the intentions and 21% in reported participation. Among the constraint-integrated models, fear, time, money and distance, and the total constraint-integrated models explained 2% to 4% more variance in participation; only perceived behavioral control (PBC) was a significant predictor of participation. Evidence of the roles of the TPB predictors in constraint negotiation were found. Recommendations are made for using more comprehensive measures of TPB predictors and specific measures of constraints for understanding a phenomenon. Programs for enhancing PBC and reducing internal and external constraints through skill development and providing more satisfying hunting opportunities are recommended.     

Contingent Valuation of Woodland-Owner Private Amenities in Spain,Portugal, and California

Most of the Mediterranean woodlands in Spain, Portugal, and California are managed as agrosilvopastoral enterprises, producing some combination of livestock, wood, cork products, and crops, as well as wildlife habitat and diverse environmental services. Private amenity benefits to landowners have been suggested as an explanation for high land prices and the persistence of such rangeland enterprises despite apparently marginal cash returns. In this study, private amenity values are estimated using a contingent valuation technique in surveys of private woodland owners as part of five case studies, using a design developed to separate landowner amenity income and capital values. Nonindustrial private landowners were asked about the maximum amount of money that they were willing to give up (to pay) before selling their property to invest in more commercially profitable assets, and the proportion of the market price of their woodland that they think is explained by privately consumed amenities. Amenity values were found to be relevant because, in all cases, landowners were willing to pay &spigt; &euro;120 · ha^-1 · yr^-1, at 2002 prices, and attributed &spigt; 30% of land market price to amenities. These values represent an amenity profitability rate &spigt; 2% in all case studies. The data analysis shows some similarities, but mostly divergences, in the different land-simulated and amenity-simulated markets.     

A State and Provincial Survey of Harvest Reporting and Data Collection Methods

This article explored state and provincial wildlife agency deer (Odocoileus sp.) harvest data collection methods (in-person check stations [IPC], postal mail, telephone, and Internet harvest reporting [IHR]), and agency opinions about using hunter-provided data in making sound management decisions. We conducted an Internet survey of all U.S. and Canadian wildlife agencies’ deer program coordinators to determine current methods used for harvest reporting. Among agencies, IHR was the most commonly used method (64%), followed by IPC (46%), telephone (41%), and mail-in kill cards (25%). An additional 13 states were in the process of providing telephone and IHR. Most agencies expressed confidence in data hunters provided and felt these data were important in helping make management decisions. Automated systems (e.g., telephone and IHR) may provide opportunities for hunters to easily report their harvest, thereby potentially increasing harvest reporting rates, eliminating manual data entry by staff, and allowing for immediate access to data.     

Wildlife Value Orientations Among Hunters,Landowners, and the General Public: A Danish Comparative Quantitative Study

This article examined wildlife value orientations among hunters (n = 1,130) and landowners (n = 1,207) in comparison to the general public (n = 1,001 adults) in Denmark, a highly urbanized European country. Respondents were categorized into four value types based on their responses to 19 statements. Significant differences in wildlife value orientations were found. Mutualists and distanced dominated in the public; most landowners and hunters were utilitarian followed by pluralist. Male hunters were more utilitarian than female. More active hunters were more utilitarian; hunters belonging to a hunting association were more utilitarian than those who did not belong to associations. Full-time farmers were more utilitarian than part-time farmers, and conventional farmers were more utilitarian than organic farmers. No significant difference with regard to residence for all three groups was found. Future studies should link what landowners and hunters actually do for the wildlife, and what the influencing factors are (e.g., incentive schemes) with their wildlife value orientations.