The oxygen consumption rate of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) reared in a single pass landbased seawater system

The oxygen consumption rates at 15.00 h of Atlantic salmon postsmolt (200–850 g) reared under normal production conditions in a 450-m³ landbased circular tank were measured and multiple regression analysis applied to obtain a model for predicting metabolic rates directly applicable to landbased fish farms. The water temperature was in the range 5–9°C.

The oxygen consumption rate was found to be a function of fish size and temperature in agreement with the results of earlier investigations on salmonids. However, on average the rates of oxygen consumption were 1·4–2·3 times higher than those given by an earlier model for Pacific salmon and the 95% confidence intervals for the predictions were broad. This is an important consideration when a landbased system is in the planning phase.     

Measurements of oxygen consumption and ammonia excretion of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) in commercial-scale, single-pass freshwater and seawater landbased culture systems

The oxygen consumption of Atlantic salmon was measured in large culture tanks for a period of 20 months from the parr to the adult stage. In addition, diurnal sampling was conducted for estimation of both oxygen consumption and ammonia excretion. The oxygen consumption was affected especially by temperature, season and smoltification. For parr the oxygen consumption rate was 1–6 mg O₂/kg min and the ammonia excretion rate was 0·037–0·13 mg N/kg min from autumn to spring. The corresponding rates for adult salmon during the period October to July were 1·5–4·5 mg O₂/kg min and 0·075–0·13 mg N/kg min.     

Growth of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) in a variable diel temperature regime

In five experiments, Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) parr were found to grow better under conditions of rhythmically alternating water temperature (P<0.031), than control groups reared under stable temperature conditions. The daily temperature sums for the experimental and the control groups were carefully equalized and monitored in all five experiments. The experimental group was reared in a rhythmically alternating temperature regime, of 10.0 h of high temperature (16.0°C) and 10.0 h of low temperature (10.0°C), the temperature adjustments being made during the 2 h between the periods of fixed temperature. The control group were reared in a relatively stable temperature regime (13.00–13.98°C). The growth rate of the fish reared under the varying temperature conditions was higher (mean for all five experiments 1.96% day⁻¹) than that for the salmon reared under stable conditions (1.85% day⁻¹).     

Furunculosis in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) is not readily controllable by bacteriophage therapy

The potential of bacteriophage therapy to control bacterial disease in farmed fish was tested using, as an example, furunculosis of Atlantic salmon, caused by Aeromonas salmonicida subsp. salmonicida.

In vivo testing with Atlantic salmon and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss Walbaum) showed no adverse effects, with bacteriophage generally cleared within 96 h of administration by either intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection or oral in-feed.

Juvenile Atlantic salmon were administered a combination of bacteriophage O, R and B (1.9 × 10⁸ pfu fish^− 1) by i.p. injection, after they had been challenged with A. salmonicida subsp. salmonicida 78027, also by i.p. injection. The fish that were injected with bacteriophage immediately after challenge died at a significantly slower rate then those that were either not treated with bacteriophage, or treated 24 h post-challenge. However, the end result (100% mortality) was not affected.

In further experiments the effects of oral (1.88 × 10⁵ pfu g^− 1 fish^− 1 daily for 30 days), bath (1.04 × 10⁵ ml^− 1 daily for 30 days) and i.p. (6.25 × 10⁷ pfu fish^− 1) phage treatment to control furunculosis in experimentally infected Atlantic salmon were compared with antibiotherapy (treatment with 10 mg kg^− 1 bw^− 1 day^− 1 oxolinic acid for 10 days), using an indirect cohabitation challenge. No protection was offered by any of the bacteriophage treatments, compared to the positive challenge group, although significant protection was offered by the oxolinic acid treatment. Analysis of samples taken from the trials demonstrated that bacteriophage were correctly administered to the fish and, on occasion, were isolated from fish that had succumbed to furunculosis. It was also shown that bacteriophage resistant A. salmonicida subsp. salmonicida isolates could be recovered from mortalities in all the treatment groups.

The results suggest that, although there were no safety problems associated with the approach, furunculosis in Atlantic salmon is not readily controllable by application of bacteriophage.     

Lipid absorption in different segments of the gastrointestinal tract of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.)

Gastrointestinal lipid absorption in Atlantic salmon was studied following force-feeding with a standard grower diet to which isotope-labelled free fatty acid (FFA) [1-¹⁴C]-decanoic acid (¹⁴C-10:0) and triacylglycerol (TAG) [9,10-³H(N)]-triolein (trioleic acid; ³H-18:1) were added. Following force-feeding, the 15 fish, with an average weight of 704 g, were kept in five circular tanks, three fish per tank, supplied with seawater (salinity, 32 g l⁻¹). At 3, 6, 12, 18 and 48 h, the fish from one tank were killed, and the gastrointestinal (GI) tract was removed and divided into six segments: stomach (ST), anterior, mid, and distal pyloric ceca (PCA, PCM, and PCD, respectively), mid intestine (MI), and distal intestine (DI). The levels of radioactivity (dpm [disintegrations per minute] μg⁻¹ tissue) from the ¹⁴C-10:0 and the ³H-18:1 substrates were measured in tissue samples from each segment, allowing an estimation of the amounts of fatty acid substrates absorbed from the lumen into the intestinal cells. The highest levels of radioactivity from both fatty acid substrates were measured in tissue from pyloric ceca (PC) 12 to 18 h after force-feeding. The level of radioactivity from the ¹⁴C-10:0 substrate was significantly higher in the PCA than in the PCM and PCD, while there was no clear difference in the level of radioactivity from the ³H-18:1 substrate measured among the different PC tissue segments and the level measured in MI. The level of radioactivity in tissue from DI was negligible to low for both fatty acid substrates. Total lipid accumulation in tissue from PCM, MI and DI was quantified morphometrically at each sampling point using light microscopy and image analysis. These results confirmed the findings from the isotope study, where the highest levels of fat were present at 12 and 18 h following force-feeding. In conclusion, PC was the most important site for fatty acid absorption in the GI tract of Atlantic salmon.     

The mineral content affects vertebral morphology in underyearling smolt of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.)

This study investigated the individual variation in vertebral morphology and mineral content (as % of bone dry weight) in rapid growing underyearling smolt (n = 33) twelve weeks after transfer to seawater. The smolt, which were reared in triplicate tanks, had a large individual variation in vertebral bone mineral content (Tank A: 36.2% min, 45.2% max, 39.6% mean. Tank B: 32.6% min, 46.6% max, 40.0% mean. Tank C: 38.5% min, 47.9% max, 42.4% mean), and were subdivided into two groups based on mean within each tank: high mineral content (HMC, above tank mean, n = 15) and low mineral content (LMC, below tank mean, n = 18). Vertebrae of smolt with a low mineral content were more compressed in the anterior–posterior direction (HMC vertebral length/dorso-ventral diameter ratio 0.83, LMC 0.80). This was related to a change in the growth direction of the vertebral cone. This change occurred around transfer to seawater and was characterised by an increased angle between the wall of the cone of the vertebrae and the cranial–caudal axis, and gave the vertebrae a compressed appearance. Smolt with a high mineral content were significantly longer (HMC 28.1 cm, LMC 26.5 cm) and heavier (HMC 270 g, LMC 210 g) twelve weeks after transfer to seawater.     

气候变化对南海浮游植物藻华形成的影响研究进展

围绕中国南海丰富的渔业资源,采用16S rDNA扩增子测序技术,分析了南海近岸硬骨鱼类鳃组织微生物群落分布特征,并探讨了7个不同站点细菌群落结构的差异。结果显示,测序共获得有效拼接片段 (Clean tags) 2 952 366条,平均每个文库56 776条。分别在门、属水平对其优势类群进行了分析,其中门水平上变形菌门 (Proteobacteria) 最高 (71.3%),属水平上变形菌门的不动杆菌属 (Acinetobacter) 最高 (17.2%)。不同站点的α多样性具有显著差异,其中I9和H8站点的物种丰富度 (Chao1指数) 最高,D3站点的多样性 (Shannon指数) 最高。不同站点来源样品之间的β多样性具有显著差异 (P<0.05),但在宿主分类的目水平上无显著差异 (P>0.05)。中国南海近岸硬骨鱼鳃组织中的细菌群落组成丰富,采样站位相比宿主分类对鳃组织上细菌群落具有更重要的影响,它们可能在辅助宿主营养物质转运及代谢方面发挥积极作用。     

Sublethal effects and safe levels of carbon dioxide in seawater for Atlantic salmon postsmolts (Salmo salar L.): ion regulation and growth

Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) postsmolts (0.17–0.26 kg) were exposed to four different levels of carbon dioxide partial pressure for 43 days in an open flow system: 0.6 mm Hg (control), 4.9 mm Hg (low), 12 mm Hg (medium), and 20 mm Hg (high). The water temperature was 15–16°C and the salinity 34‰. In the low carbon dioxide group (P_CO2=4.9 mm Hg; 10.6 mg/l), no significant differences were found in blood parameters (haematocrit, plasma chloride and plasma sodium) or in growth parameters (weight, length and condition factor) when compared to the control group. After 43 days, the mean plasma chloride concentration for the medium group (P_CO2=12 mm Hg; 26 mg/l) was significantly reduced, while weight and condition factor were slightly, although not significantly, lowered. For the high carbon dioxide group (P_CO2=20 mm Hg; 44 mg/l) plasma sodium and plasma pH were significantly increased and plasma chloride, oxygen consumption, weight, length and condition factor were significantly reduced at the end of exposure. There was no mortality in the control group or in the low carbon dioxide group. The mortalities in the medium and high carbon dioxide groups were 1.1 and 4.3%, respectively. Nephrocalsinosis was not observed in any of the groups. The results of the present investigation indicate that the CO₂ concentration of the low group may represent a safe level for Atlantic salmon postsmolts when the temperature is 15–16°C and the oxygen level is 6–7 mg/l. Further studies are required.     

Efficacy of bithionol as an oral treatment for amoebic gill disease in Atlantic salmon Salmo salar (L.)

This study examined the efficacy of bithionol as an oral treatment for Atlantic salmon Salmo salar affected by amoebic gill disease (AGD). The current commercial management strategy of AGD is a costly 3 h freshwater bath. It is labour intensive and the number of baths needed appears to be increasing; hence, there is an effort to identify alternative treatments. Efficacy was examined by feeding AGD-affected Atlantic salmon twice daily to satiation with bithionol, an antiprotozoal, at 25 mg kg^− 1 feed. Three seawater (35‰, 17 °C) re-circulation systems were used each consisting of three tanks containing 32 Atlantic salmon smolts with an average (± SEM) mass of 90.4 g (± 5.2). Three feeds were examined in the trial including bithionol, plain commercial control and oil coated commercial control. Feeding commenced 2 weeks prior to exposure to Neoparamoeba spp. at 300 cells L^− 1 and continued for 28 days post-exposure. Efficacy was determined by examining gross gill score and identifying percent lesioned gill filaments twice weekly for 4 weeks post-exposure. Bithionol when fed as a two-week prophylactic treatment at 25 mg kg^− 1 feed delayed the onset of AGD pathology and reduced the percent lesioned gill filaments by 53% and halved the gill score from 2 to 1 when compared with both the plain and oil controls during an experimental challenge. There were no palatability problems observed with mean feed intake of bithionol over the trial duration with fish consuming higher levels of the bithionol diet compared to both the oil and plain controls. This study demonstrated that bithionol at 25 mg kg^− 1 feed, when fed as a two-week prophylactic treatment for Neoparamoeba spp. exposure, delayed and reduced the intensity of AGD pathology and warrants further investigation as an alternative to the current freshwater bath treatment for AGD-affected Atlantic salmon.     

Growth and parr-smolt transformation of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) under different light intensities and subsequent survival and growth in seawater

Groups of potential Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) smolts were reared under a simulated natural photoperiod from November 1987 to May 1988. Three different light intensities were used: 27, 335 or 715 lux. Growth rate was not significantly influenced by differences in light intensity. All groups developed the silvery external appearance, increased hypo-osmoregulatory ability and decreased condition coefficient associated with smolting. Smolts from all groups were successfully acclimatized to seawater in early May. The subsequent seven months of rearing in seawater did not reveal any differences in post-smolt performance of the groups. The incidence of early maturation during the first autumn was similar in all groups. We conclude that within the limits of the light sources used in the present experiment, light intensity had no significant effect on the growth and smolting in juvenile Atlantic salmon.     

Differences in sea migration between wild and reared Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) in the Baltic Sea

The effect of origin, smolt size and year of release on the sea migration pattern of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) in the Baltic Sea was examined by tagging experiments conducted in 1991–1993 on wild and reared smolts of the Simojoki river salmon stock. The tag recovery data analysed by log-linear models revealed significant differences in both spatial and temporal sea migrations between the wild and reared salmon; the variation was attributed to the year of release and to the origin of the fish. Grilse accounted for the majority of reared returners (76%) but for a smaller proportion (46%) of the wild fish. The effect of smolt size could be studied only in the smolt groups tagged in 1991. Wild fish were more frequently (71%) caught in the Baltic Main Basin than were reared fish (51%) during their second sea year, and the size variation between wild and reared smolts did not explain the recovery site. No such differences in spatial distribution were found during the third sea year. The tagging place (hatchery/trap) of the reared fish did not affect their later sea migration. The differences in sea migration patterns suggest that the wild salmon are more vulnerable to the intensive salmon fishery in the Baltic Main Basin than are reared fish.     

Long-term separate and combined effects of environmental hypercapnia and hyperoxia in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) smolts

Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) parr (mean start weight 50 g) were reared in freshwater (FW) and exposed to three levels of oxygen saturation measured in effluent water; control group (93% O₂, LO₂), medium (111% O₂, MO₂) and high (123% O₂, HO₂). Further three groups were exposed to similar water oxygen levels in combination with elevated carbon dioxide levels (17–18 mg L^– 1 CO₂), named LO₂–CO₂, MO₂–CO₂ and HO₂–CO₂, respectively. The experiment was run in duplicate tanks for 42 days, and the fish were subsequently transferred to the same seawater (SW) regime for 45 days for an assessment of post-smolt growth. As a consequence of the CO₂ addition, tank pH levels in the FW period were reduced from 6.7 to 5.9 for the hypercapnia groups compared to for the normcapnia groups. Water temperature in FW ranged between 6.4 and 9.0 °C. Citrate was added to the water to complex labile aluminium.In the CO₂ groups observed ventilation frequencies were significantly increased compared to the control (p < 0.05). This difference declined towards the end of the FW period, suggesting acclimation to elevated CO₂. The degree of oxygenation appeared to contribute to the acclimation as the lowest mean ventilation frequency on day 36 was found in the HO₂–CO₂ group and the highest in the LO₂–CO₂ group. Lower plasma chloride and sodium levels were observed in the CO₂ groups relative to the respective oxygenation groups during the FW period, while plasma chloride and sodium levels were normalised to equal levels for all groups after 44 days in SW. No significant differences were found among treatments for blood concentrations of red blood cells, haemoglobin, potassium and glucose during the experiment.By termination of the FW period, the HO₂ group had significantly higher body weight than all other groups (p < 0.05), with specific growth rate significantly higher than the CO₂ groups (p < 0.05). Further, the condition factor was significantly lower in all the CO₂ groups at the end of the FW period compared to the control and normcapnia groups (p < 0.05). Although variable among replicates, occurrence of nephrocalcinosis was 10 times higher in the hypercapnia groups than in the control and normcapnia groups. Mortality was negligible (< 2.0%) during the trial, and most of the mortality occurred following SW transfer.     

Rapid and non-invasive measurements of fat and pigment concentrations in live and slaughtered Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.)

The aim of this study was to non-invasively determine fat and pigment concentrations in salmon muscle based on visible and near infrared (VIS/NIR) spectroscopy measurements of live/whole fish and fillets, and by means of digital photography (DP) of fillets. The fish used were two populations of farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) consisting of 46 salmon averaging 0.7 kg (range 0.17–1.7 kg, Group S) and 30 salmon averaging 2.3 kg (range 1.4–4.1 kg, Group L). Chemical analyses (fat and pigment content) and computerized tomography, CT (fat content) were used as reference methods. Group L was analysed in the live state (VIS/NIR), after gutting (VIS/NIR and CT), and as fillets (VIS/NIR and DP). Group S was analysed in the gutted state (VIS/NIR) and as fillets (VIS/NIR and DP). VIS spectroscopy predictions of pigment in whole salmon from Group S were obtained with a root mean square error of prediction (RMSEP) of 0.9 mg kg^− 1 astaxanthin, and a correlation between VIS spectroscopy predicted and chemically measured pigment of r = 0.85 (p < 0.0001). The fat concentration was determined by the NIR spectroscopy in live fish with RMSEP = 1.0 fat% unit, and a correlation with chemical reference values of r = 0.94 (p < 0.0001). Fat predictions from NIR spectroscopy correlated also well with predictions from CT analyses, r = 0.95 (p < 0.0001). VIS spectroscopy and DP were equally well suited to determine pigment concentrations in salmon fillets, with prediction errors of only 0.4 mg kg^− 1 astaxanthin, and a correlation with chemically determined pigment of r = 0.92 (p < 0.0001). The results obtained in the present study are the first to demonstrate successful non-invasive pigment predictions in whole salmon using VIS/NIR spectroscopy, and the possibility for simultaneous, rapid and non-destructive quantification of fat and pigment concentrations.     

Dietary phytase supplementation and the utilisation of phosphorus by Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) fed a canola-meal-based diet

The effect of phytase supplementation to a canola-meal-based diet on phosphorus utilisation in Atlantic salmon was studied in a two-by-two factorial design. Diets were prepared without phytase or inorganic phosphorus supplementation, with phytase, with supplemental inorganic phosphorus and with both phytase and supplemental inorganic phosphorus. Available phosphorus was set below requirement and the total phosphorus set to meet requirements for salmonids. After 12 weeks, there were no significant differences in survival, feed intake and weight gain between diets. There was an interaction effect between supplements on bone ash, bone phosphorus and whole-body phosphorus so that adding phytase, inorganic phosphorus, or both resulted in significantly (P<0.05) higher values for these parameters. An interaction effect was also observed for phosphorus digestibility, phosphorus retention efficiency and phosphorus load. Phosphorus digestibility and retention efficiency were significantly (P<0.05) higher, and phosphorus load was significantly (P<0.05) lower in fish fed the phytase supplemented diet compared with diets containing supplemental inorganic phosphorus. In conclusion, phytase increased phosphorus availability, therefore reducing the need to add inorganic phosphorus and reducing phosphorus waste from plant-meal-based diets for Atlantic salmon.     

Microsatellite analysis in domesticated and wild Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.): allelic diversity and identification of individuals

Samples of wild and domesticated salmon in Norway were genotyped at 12 microsatellite loci to compare allelic variability and investigate the potential of microsatellite markers for identification of individuals. The following loci were amplified: Ssa20, Ssa62NVH, Ssa71NVH, Ssa90NVH, Ssa103NVH, Ssa105NVH, SsaF43; Ssa20.19; Ssa13.37; SsOSL85; Ssa197; Ssa28. All domesticated strain samples displayed reduced variability compared to wild salmon. On average 58% of the allelic richness observed within the four wild stocks were present in the samples taken from domesticated strains. No systematic differences in heterozygosity were observed between samples representing the two groups.

Pairwise genetic distances, as estimated by Fst values and Nei [1978] was 2–8 times higher among domesticated strains than among wild strains. Among the wild stocks, the highest genetic distances were observed between the river Neiden, located in northern Norway, and the other wild stocks located in the southwest of Norway.

Assignment tests indicated that the wild and domesticated salmon could be distinguished with high precision. Less than 4% of domesticated salmon were misassigned as wild salmon, and less than 3% of wild fish were misassigned as domesticated salmon. Fish from individual domesticated strains were identified with similarly high precision. Assignment to wild salmon stocks was less accurate, with the exception of the sample taken from the river Neiden, for which 93% of the individuals were correctly assigned.     

Anisakid larva in the viscera of a farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)

Parasitic nematodes of the family Anisakidae occur in the visceral cavity and surrounding tissues of many marine fish species at a prevalence as high as 100% in wild salmon samples. Human consumption of fish products containing these parasites can result in the zoonotic disease anisakiasis, and Anisakis simplex is most commonly associated with human disease. Previous studies of farmed salmon have found no anisakids in viscera or muscle, presumably because formulated feed production renders parasite larvae nonviable. However, among farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) examined by histopathology as part of a provincial government auditing program in British Columbia, Canada, 1 of 894 (0.11%) had an anisakid larva partly embedded in the wall of an intestinal cecum. Skeletal muscle is not examined as part of the government's program, but other studies have correlated anisakids in the viscera and muscle. Using anisakid prevalence in viscera as an estimate of its prevalence in muscle, the risk ratio of anisakid parasites in commercial product is 570 times less in farmed than in wild Atlantic salmon.     

Effects of Carlin tagging and fin clipping on survival of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) released as smolts

During the period 1976–1979, in total 2567 wild migrating smolts of Atlantic salmon were Carlin-tagged, 2528 were adipose fin-clipped and 2309 individuals were released unmarked into the River Imsa, S.W. Norway. The smolts were caught in a permanent Wolf trap. The adult return rate to the river was highest for unmarked and lowest for Carlin-tagged fish. The main reason for this is probably a mortality of smolts due to handling, anaesthesia and tagging.     

Long-term culture of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) in submerged cages during winter affects behaviour, growth and condition

In the search for alternative farming methods, we investigated whether large salmon submerged below 10 m in winter conditions behaved normally and performed as well as control fish held in standard surface cages. On average, 2345 salmon of ~ 3.5 kg were kept in each of six 2000 m³ sea-cages for 6 weeks; three of which were submerged to 10–24 m depth and three acted as surface controls (0–14 m). Behaviour during both day and night was studied with echo-sounders, and underwater video cameras fitted with infra-red lamps. A sub-sample of fish from each cage was weighed, measured and assessed for fin and snout condition prior to and after the experimental period. In addition, the vertebral column of 50 fish from the control and submerged treatments were dissected and X-rayed to assess vertebral deformities. The submerged salmon seemed unable to re-fill any gas into the swim bladder, as a linear decrease in echo reflection to < 5% of pre-submergence levels after 22 days of submergence indicated loss of almost all gas from the physostomous swim bladders and negatively buoyant fish. Around day 22, submerged salmon swam at night time with a distinct ‘tail-down, head-up’ tilt (26°) compared to the horizontal swimming position of control fish (− 3°). Average swimming speed (body length per second) of submerged salmon were 1.3–1.4 times faster (day: 0.77 ± 0.02; night: 0.46 ± 0.02, (mean ± SE)) than control fish (day: 0.54 ± 0.01; night: 0.37 ± 0.02) both during day and night. Almost no mortality was seen, and the submerged salmon maintained similar diurnal vertical migrations as the surface fish, indicating that deep submergence did not exhaust the fish. However, submerged fish fed less efficiently, resulting in lower growth and reduced feed utilization. Fins and snouts of the submerged fish had small, but significantly more erosion than the control fish. Vertebrae in the tail region were significantly compressed in the submerged fish compared to control fish. This could be an early symptom of development of vertebral deformities. The results suggest that continuous submergence below 10 m for longer than 2 weeks reduces the welfare and performance of Atlantic salmon.     

两种规格大西洋鲑胃排空特征及其模型分析

为探究大西洋鲑(Salmo salar)的胃排空特征及其模型, 本研究采用胃含物分析法对两种规格[(176.15±27.52) g 和(323.33±43.91) g]大西洋鲑进行胃排空实验。经暂养 27 d 适应后, 两种规格大西洋鲑停食 48 h, 分别在饱食投喂后第 0、3、6、9、12、18 和 24 小时测定其胃含物湿重和干重, 并用 4 种数学模型拟合; 在筛选出其最佳胃排空模型后, 计算最佳干重模型下 80%干重胃排空时间作为其最适投喂频率。结果表明, 与湿重模型相比, 干重胃排空模型能更准确反映大西洋鲑胃排空时间的状况。小规格和大规格大西洋鲑的最佳干重胃排空模型分别为指数模型和平方根模型, 其 80%干重胃排空时间分别为 12.23 h 和 18.06 h。小规格大西洋鲑胃排空比大规格更快, 这可能是因为小规格大西洋鲑消化前期干燥饲料被水分软化的时间更短。本研究结果可为大西洋鲑智能投喂系统提供生物学参数, 为实际生产中智能投喂策略提供理论参考。     

Towards a classification and an understanding of developmental relationships of vertebral body malformations in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.)

Vertebral column malformations in Atlantic salmon occur under farming conditions and in wild specimens and are commonly diagnosed by X-ray. The literature uses varied terms to describe malformations, and often, different terms refer to similar phenomena or similar terms describe unrelated pathologies. A coherent classification of spine defects is lacking. This shortcoming complicates the comparison of studies, makes it difficult to link particular malformations to particular causes and hampers the assessment of the prevalence of spinal deformities.Expanding available systems to categorise skeletal malformations in different teleost species, we propose 20 types of salmon vertebral column malformations that are repetitively observed under farming conditions. As vertebral column deformities are usually diagnosed by X-ray, the classification of deformity types is based on radiological observations that have been obtained over the past 10 years from more than 5000 specimens. The proposed deformity types should be identifiable independent from the type (analogue, digital) and the quality of radiographs. We propose nine types of compression and fusion-related deformities, four types of abnormal radiotranslucent or radiopaque vertebral bodies, three types of spine curvatures, three types of symmetry deviations and displacement of vertebral bodies and one type of severe multiple malformations. Based on the suggested categories we discuss the relationships between types of vertebral body malformations. Several types of malformations involve the development of heterotopic cartilage, a pathology that is possibly linked to mechanical overload and accelerated growth. Refined categories for vertebral body malformations should help link particular types of malformations to particular causes. It should also help find out which deformities represent final stages and which deformities represent transitory stages.